Sarpullido por pañal

Acemannan has demonstrated in vitro and in vivo antiviral activity against HIV-1, influenza, and measles viruses, attributed to inhibition of viral replication and immunostimulation. A small human clinical study in AIDS patients showed clinical improvement over 900 days at 800 mg/day orally.

In vitro studies have demonstrated agrimony's antiviral activity against multiple virus types, including mengovirus, negative-sense RNA viruses, and hepatitis B surface antigen secretion. Aqueous extracts of both A. eupatoria and A. pilosa inhibited HBsAg secretion. These findings are preclinical; no human antiviral RCT exists.

AHCC (Active Hexose Correlated Compound) is a standardized shiitake mycelia extract primarily composed of α-glucans. Human pilot studies and RCTs show it enhances NK cell, T cell, and dendritic cell activity against viral pathogens. Clinical studies specifically demonstrate support for clearing persistent HPV viral infections.

Ajoene exhibits in vitro antiviral activity against HIV-1, inhibiting both HIV-induced cell-cell fusion (syncytia) and viral replication in infected cell lines. Its mechanism involves blocking integrin-mediated adhesion of HIV target cells. Evidence is limited to cell culture and no human clinical antiviral trials have been conducted.

Allicin is the primary bioactive organosulfur compound produced when garlic is crushed or chopped, with documented antiviral activity against influenza B, HSV-1/2, rhinovirus, vaccinia, and cytomegalovirus. It acts via direct virucidal action on enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Traditional use of garlic as an anti-infective supports its role in viral immune response.

Andrographis paniculata and its primary diterpene andrographolide have demonstrated antiviral and immunomodulatory activity in multiple clinical trials against respiratory viruses. The plant is used in Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese Medicine as an anti-infective. RCTs show significant reduction in cold and flu symptom scores and duration.

Andrographolide, the primary diterpenoid from Andrographis paniculata, inhibits replication of multiple viruses including influenza, coronavirus, HSV, dengue, and HIV. It acts both directly on viral targets and via immune cell modulation. Phase I clinical data in HIV patients showed increased CD4+ lymphocyte counts.

Apigenin is a flavone found in parsley, chamomile, celery, and thyme with documented antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, EBV, HIV, HSV, and HBV. It is one of the active components in propolis and chamomile contributing to antiviral immune effects. Mechanistic evidence is strong; clinical data are limited.

Arabinogalactan from larch (Larix species) is a prebiotic polysaccharide with immunostimulatory properties including NK cell and macrophage activation. Extracts from Echinacea also contain arabinogalactans contributing to antiviral immune modulation. Clinical studies support its role in reducing frequency of common cold infections.

Aronia melanocarpa extracts have demonstrated direct antiviral activity against influenza A (H1N1) and human coronavirus strains in vitro, and immunomodulatory effects including suppression of NF-κB and regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These properties are attributed primarily to anthocyanins and their polyphenolic co-constituents.

Artemether is a lipid-soluble artemisinin derivative with WHO-approved antimalarial use and documented antiviral activity against multiple viruses including SARS-CoV-2, CMV, EBV, HBV, HSV, and influenza. Its endoperoxide mechanism generates ROS that damage viral proteins, and it has been incorporated in Chinese COVID-19 treatment protocols.

Artesunate is a water-soluble artemisinin derivative with WHO-approval for severe malaria and documented antiviral activity against CMV, EBV, HBV, HSV, and HIV. Clinical trials have evaluated artesunate for antiviral indications beyond malaria, with case reports and pilot studies supporting antiviral immune activity.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is a primary Ayurvedic adaptogen with immunomodulatory properties including NK cell activation and T cell function enhancement. Modern clinical studies confirm immune cell activity enhancement. Withanolides, its primary bioactives, have shown antiviral activity against HIV and influenza in vitro.

S. cusia root and leaf extracts contain tryptanthrin, strobilanthes A, and other alkaloids with demonstrated antiviral activity in vitro against influenza A, hepatitis B, and human coronavirus NL63. The root preparation RRBC has historically been used for epidemic viral diseases and has shown in vitro flu inhibition.

Astaxanthin is a red keto-carotenoid with potent antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties. It enhances NK cell activity, T cell proliferation, and antibody production. Clinical studies support its role in reducing oxidative damage during viral infection and modulating immune responses; it has shown preliminary evidence for reducing cold and flu severity.

Astragalosides, the major active saponin compounds from Astragalus membranaceus, demonstrate immunostimulatory and anti-inflammatory activities including induction of IFN-γ, T cell activation, and modulation of CD45 phosphatase activity. They represent a key mechanism by which astragalus supports antiviral immune defense.

Astragalus membranaceus (Huang-Qi) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with extensive evidence for immune-boosting and antiviral properties. Astragalus polysaccharides inhibit influenza A viral replication, modulate T cell balance, and induce interferon-γ. Clinical and preclinical evidence supports reduction of upper respiratory viral infections, particularly in children.

Baicalein is a flavone from Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) with documented antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, HBV, HCV, HSV, HIV, and dengue. It inhibits viral RNA polymerase, neuraminidase, and entry into host cells. TCM has used Baikal skullcap for respiratory viral infections for 2,000+ years.

Baicalin is the glucuronide conjugate of baicalein from Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) with documented antiviral activity. It inhibits influenza neuraminidase, SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, and multiple other viral targets. Used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for febrile viral diseases for over 2,000 years.

Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) root is a primary Traditional Chinese Medicine herb for febrile viral infections containing baicalein and baicalin as key antiviral compounds. Multiple in vitro studies confirm activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, HBV, HCV, and HIV. TCM use for viral respiratory infections spans over 2,000 years.

Basil extracts demonstrate antiviral activity in vitro, including against herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, enterovirus, and preliminary data against HIV-1. A PMC review (2024) confirms antiviral properties as part of O. basilicum's documented pharmacological activities. The Herbal Reality monograph notes basil has shown inhibitory activity against HIV-1.

Bee propolis exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral and immunomodulatory activity through its flavonoid and phenolic constituents. In vitro and in vivo studies confirm activity against influenza, coronaviruses, rhinovirus, parainfluenza, and HSV. It modulates pro-inflammatory cytokines and activates both innate and adaptive immune responses against viral pathogens.

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid from berberis, goldenseal, and other plants with documented antiviral activity against influenza, HSV, HBV, HIV, SARS-CoV-2, RSV, and dengue viruses. It inhibits viral entry and replication and modulates innate immune antiviral signaling. Extensive in vitro evidence is supplemented by limited clinical data.

Beta-glucans are polysaccharides from fungal, yeast, and cereal sources that bind pattern recognition receptors (Dectin-1, CR3, TLR) on immune cells, triggering innate antiviral immune activation. They have been studied as vaccine adjuvants and for trained immunity induction. RCT evidence supports immune modulation relevant to viral defense.

B. lactis strains enhance innate antiviral defenses by stimulating NK-cell activity and T-cell responses, and by elevating secretory IgA at mucosal surfaces. Clinical trial data show reduced viral URTI risk and improved immune cell function following B. lactis supplementation.

In vitro research demonstrates that E. perfoliatum hydroalcoholic extracts inhibit influenza A virus (IAV) attachment to host cells, with polyphenolic compounds acting on viral hemagglutinin. Separately, polysaccharide fractions have shown immune cell stimulation including enhancement of phagocytosis in murine macrophage assays. These mechanistic findings rationalize the herb's traditional role in febrile viral illness, but no human clinical trials of the antiviral effect have been performed.

Saikosaponins from B. falcatum, particularly saikosaponin B2, inhibit hepatitis virus entry into human hepatocytes in vitro. In vitro studies also show activity against enveloped viruses (measles, herpes) and coxsackie B virus. The antiviral mechanism involves blocking viral attachment and cellular entry. No human antiviral trials exist for B. falcatum isolate.

C. crista extracts have demonstrated antiviral activity in preclinical and in vitro studies, including reported activity against select animal viruses. A review noted inclusion of C. crista among plants investigated for antiviral activity against COVID-19 compounds.

Cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) contains pentacyclic oxindole alkaloids (POAs) and glycosides with immunostimulatory and antiviral properties. Traditional use in Amazonian medicine spans centuries for infectious and inflammatory conditions. POAs modulate NK cell and macrophage activity; extracts have demonstrated antiviral activity against HIV and influenza.

Catechins exhibit documented antiviral activity against respiratory viruses, influenza, and other pathogens. A placebo-controlled RCT in 270 healthcare workers found catechin-containing beverages reduced the incidence of acute upper respiratory tract infections over 12 weeks.

Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) contains beta-glucans, betulinic acid, and polyphenols with demonstrated antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. In vitro studies confirm antiviral activity against HIV, hepatitis C, and herpes viruses. Traditional use in Siberian/Russian folk medicine for infectious diseases predates scientific study by centuries.

Aronia berries show potential anti-influenza activity in preliminary studies, and a major constituent (quercetin) has been evaluated in clinical trials for COVID-19. Polyphenols also have demonstrated antiviral and antimicrobial properties in vitro. Direct human RCT evidence for antiviral immune response from chokeberry itself is limited.

Clove essential oil and eugenol demonstrate in vitro antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), hepatitis A virus, and influenza-related bacteria. The 2014 PMC Syzygium review documents antiviral activity against herpes simplex as a pharmacological property of eugenol.

Lauric acid in coconut milk is converted in vivo to monolaurin, which disrupts the lipid bilayer envelopes of lipid-coated viruses, impairing their replication. In vitro studies confirm antiviral activity against multiple enveloped viruses. Human clinical evidence is limited, but the mechanism is well-characterized in virological literature.

Lauric acid and monolaurin from coconut oil have demonstrated antiviral activity against enveloped viruses including herpes simplex, RSV, influenza A, and HIV in vitro, via envelope disruption, maturation inhibition, and prevention of host-cell binding. A 2021 RCT found VCO reduced CRP in COVID-19 suspects. A small HIV clinical trial showed preliminary antiviral signals.

Bovine colostrum contains immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM), lactoferrin, and various immune growth factors that collectively support antiviral immune defense. Clinical trials have shown bovine colostrum supplementation can reduce incidence and duration of upper respiratory tract infections, including those of viral etiology. It is supported by both traditional and scientific evidence.

Cordyceps (Cordyceps sinensis and militaris) is a medicinal fungus with established immunomodulatory properties used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for centuries. Modern studies show Cordyceps polysaccharides and nucleosides (cordycepin) enhance NK cell activity, T cell function, and cytokine production relevant to antiviral defense. It is used in China as adjunctive therapy for respiratory and viral infections.

Coriolus versicolor (turkey tail) contains PSK (polysaccharide-K) and PSP (polysaccharide-peptide) with established immunostimulatory and antiviral immune-modulating properties. Licensed in Japan as an immune adjuvant, it enhances T cell, NK cell, and macrophage activity relevant to antiviral defense. Human data support immune clearance of viral pathogens including HPV.

Curcumin is a polyphenol from turmeric with documented broad-spectrum antiviral activity against HIV-1, HIV-2, HSV, HPV, HTLV-1, HBV, HCV, influenza A, Japanese encephalitis virus, and SARS-CoV-1/2. An RCT in early-stage COVID-19 showed clinical benefit of curcumin plus quercetin supplementation alongside standard of care.

Danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) is a fundamental TCM herb whose diterpenoids (tanshinones) have documented antiviral activity against influenza, HIV, HBV, and SARS-CoV-2. Tanshinones inhibit viral entry and replication. Danshen has been used in TCM for respiratory and infectious conditions for over 2,000 years.

Echinacea purpurea has demonstrated broad antiviral activity against enveloped respiratory viruses including coronaviruses, influenza, rhinovirus, and herpes simplex in vitro and in RCTs. A mini-review of RCTs found preventive treatment reduced coronavirus incidence in adults and significantly reduced viral loads in children. Mechanistically it acts via immune modulation rather than pure stimulation, reducing inflammatory cytokines while enhancing macrophage antiviral function.

Echinacea purpurea is the most studied species for antiviral immune support, with RCT evidence showing reduced coronavirus and influenza viral loads, shortened illness duration, and immune modulation via macrophage activation and cytokine regulation. Clinical studies confirm virucidal activity against enveloped respiratory pathogens.

EGCG is the most abundant and bioactive catechin in green tea, with well-documented broad-spectrum antiviral activity including against influenza A, HSV, HIV, HCV, and SARS-CoV-2. It inhibits viral attachment to heparan sulfate and sialic acid on host cells and suppresses viral 3CL-protease activity. Both in vitro and preliminary human-level evidence support antiviral immune benefits.

Black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) extracts have demonstrated antiviral activity against influenza and other respiratory viruses in multiple RCTs and meta-analyses. Anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin-3-sambubioside, inhibit viral neuraminidase and reduce replication. Clinical trials show reduction in cold and flu duration and severity.

Eleuthero is a documented gamma-interferon inducer and immunomodulator with direct antiviral activity against RNA viruses. Eleutheroside B1 reduces influenza virus replication in human lung cells. Human studies show enhanced natural killer cell and T-lymphocyte counts after supplementation.

Eucalyptus essential oils and 1,8-cineole exhibit documented antiviral activity against multiple human viruses in vitro, including adenovirus, mumps virus, influenza, herpes simplex, and others. The oil also modulates innate immune responses by stimulating phagocytic activity of macrophages and monocytes at lower doses. Multiple PMC-indexed reviews characterize this evidence.

Elderberry extract demonstrates antiviral activity against influenza A and B viruses and modulates cytokine production in human ex vivo studies. In vitro evidence shows inhibition of viral entry and replication. Three human studies have measured cytokine changes after elderberry ingestion. Anthocyanins and flavonoids are considered the primary active constituents.

Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide from brown seaweeds with documented antiviral activity against multiple viruses including HSV, norovirus, influenza, HIV, and dengue. It inhibits viral attachment to host cells by competing with heparan sulfate binding sites. Multiple in vitro and some clinical studies support its antiviral immune properties.

Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids show documented anti-HIV-1 protease activity via inhibition of lanostane triterpenes, and polysaccharides stimulate innate antiviral immune responses including NK cell activation and interferon-gamma production. Traditional use includes antiviral applications, and modern reviews confirm this activity.

Garlic contains allicin and related organosulfur compounds with demonstrated antiviral, antimicrobial, and immunostimulatory properties. It has been used in traditional medicine across cultures for millennia for infectious diseases. Modern evidence supports garlic extract's role in modulating immune function and reducing susceptibility to respiratory viral infections.

Garlic organosulfur compounds enhance innate and adaptive immunity, elevating NK cell and γδ-T cell function, and have demonstrated antiviral activity against influenza, herpes simplex, and coxsackievirus in preclinical studies. A clinical RCT found AGE improved immune cell function and reduced cold and flu symptom severity versus placebo.

Pelargonium sidoides has demonstrated antiviral immune-modulating effects in clinical and in vitro research. P. graveolens geraniol has shown ACE2 inhibitory activity relevant to respiratory viruses. Both species stimulate innate immune antiviral mechanisms.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) contains shogaols, gingerols, and zingerone with documented antiviral activity against RSV, influenza, adenovirus, and rhinovirus. It modulates cytokine production and NF-κB pathways relevant to viral immune defense. Clinical studies support ginger's use for respiratory viral infections.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) contains ginsenosides with clinically-studied immunomodulatory and antiviral properties. RCTs demonstrate that ginseng supplementation enhances NK cell activity, improves influenza vaccine immunogenicity, and reduces frequency and duration of colds and flu. It has been used for 2,000+ years in Traditional Chinese Medicine as an immune tonic.

Ginsenosides are the primary bioactive triterpene saponins from Panax ginseng responsible for immunomodulatory and antiviral effects. They enhance NK cell activity, T cell function, macrophage activation, and IFN production. Clinical evidence supports their role in reducing respiratory viral infection incidence and improving vaccine immunogenicity.

Glabridin is a primary isoflavane from licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) with documented antiviral activity including against SARS-CoV-2 and influenza. It inhibits viral protease and replication machinery and has anti-inflammatory immunomodulatory properties relevant to viral immune response.

Glycyrrhizin is the primary bioactive triterpene saponin from licorice root with documented antiviral activity against SARS-CoV, influenza, HSV, HIV, HCV, and HBV. IV glycyrrhizin was used clinically during the 2003 SARS outbreak in Japan. It exerts both direct virucidal effects and immunostimulatory activity including interferon induction.

Green chiretta has demonstrated direct antiviral and immune-modulatory effects in both clinical and in vitro studies against influenza, HIV, and SARS-CoV-2. Andrographolide inhibits viral replication and promotes lymphocyte and NK cell activity. Human trials confirm immune response augmentation during viral respiratory infections.

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is rich in catechins, particularly EGCG, with demonstrated antiviral activity against influenza A, SARS-CoV-2, HSV, HIV, and HCV. It inhibits viral neuraminidase, viral attachment to host cells, and viral protease activity. Epidemiological data suggest a correlation between green tea consumption and reduced COVID-19 morbidity.

Manuka honey has demonstrated inhibitory effects against influenza and varicella-zoster viruses, and oral honey has potentiated antiviral drug responses in preclinical and early clinical evidence. A 2020/21 review (Heliyon/PMC) documents honey's immune-modulating properties including stimulation of MAIT cells by methylglyoxal (MGO) and suppression of NF-κB and MAPK inflammatory signaling relevant to viral immunity.

Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is a fundamental Traditional Chinese Medicine herb used for viral respiratory infections and febrile diseases for centuries. It contains chlorogenic acid, luteolin, and quercetin with antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, RSV, and HIV. Component of classical TCM formulas (Shuang Huang Lian) used in SARS and COVID-19.

Hyssop extracts show in vitro anti-HIV and anti-herpes simplex virus (HSV) activity. Caffeic acid, unidentified tannins, and a polysaccharide (MAR-10) from H. officinalis inhibit HIV reverse transcriptase, syncytia formation, and p24 antigen expression. A 2022 study showed hyssop extract activates innate antiviral immunity via endosomal TLR pathways in human PBMCs.

Oral SBI was studied in a randomized pilot trial of mild-to-moderate COVID-19, showing faster resolution of symptoms and a trend toward WHO scale improvement in the SBI arm. IgG in SBI also broadly supports mucosal immunity and CD4+ T cell reconstitution, relevant to systemic viral responses.

In vitro and mechanistic studies show that bael fruit decoctions exhibit cidal activity against rotavirus and Giardia, and multiple pharmacological reviews identify antiviral activity as an established property of AM extracts. Immunomodulatory activity (modulating IgG, IgM, IgA, and cytokines) has also been documented in preclinical studies.

Indian tinospora (Tinospora cordifolia) is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a primary immunomodulatory herb for infectious diseases including viral conditions. Its polysaccharides and alkaloids enhance macrophage, NK cell, and T cell function. Clinical evidence supports reductions in dengue fever severity and adjunctive use in COVID-19.

L. brevis KB290 has been shown in human studies to enhance IFN-α production and augment influenza virus-specific IgA, key components of antiviral defense. Mouse studies confirmed increased cell-mediated cytotoxic activity of splenocytes and alleviation of influenza-induced clinical symptoms. These immunostimulatory effects are proposed as the basis for reduced influenza incidence observed in human intervention studies.

L. casei Shirota has been studied for its role in modulating antiviral immune responses, including NK cell activity and secretory IgA production. RCT data from respiratory infection trials in office workers, athletes, and students provide clinical evidence for enhanced viral immunity. The strain has also been studied for modulating vaccine antibody responses.

Lactoferrin is a multifunctional glycoprotein with demonstrated antiviral and immune-regulating properties. It competes with viruses for heparan sulfate proteoglycan binding sites on host cells, blocking initial viral attachment. Clinical evidence and RCTs support its role in reducing respiratory viral infection susceptibility, particularly in elderly populations.

In vitro and ex vivo studies demonstrate that LPO-generated hypothiocyanite (OSCN⁻) and hypoiodite (OI⁻) inactivate multiple influenza A and B virus strains, as well as other respiratory viruses. The antiviral action involves binding to the viral envelope without interfering with viral adsorption. Evidence is preclinical/mechanistic; no human clinical trials of LPO as an antiviral supplement have been published.

Lemon's vitamin C and hesperidin support antiviral immune defenses. Hesperidin, lemon's principal flavonoid, has computational and in vitro evidence of binding viral proteins including SARS-CoV-2 components. Vitamin C supports natural killer cell activity, lymphocyte function, and interferon production relevant to viral clearance.

Lentinan is a beta-1,3-glucan polysaccharide purified from shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes) with well-documented immunomodulatory activity. It activates NK cells, macrophages, and T cells, and has been approved as a pharmaceutical immune adjuvant in Japan. Evidence supports its role in enhancing antiviral immune defense.

LEM and its purified fractions show antiviral activity against hepatitis C virus, herpes simplex virus, and HIV in preclinical and in vitro studies. LEM inhibited influenza virus growth in vitro and in vivo by direct action and by activating IFN-β-mediated immune responses. Clinical data with lentinan (a related shiitake extract) demonstrate immunostimulant efficacy against hepatitis.

Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra/uralensis) contains glycyrrhizin and glabridin with documented antiviral activity against SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, influenza, HSV, HIV, HCV, and HBV. It has been used in TCM and Western herbal medicine for respiratory viral conditions for thousands of years. Glycyrrhizin intravenous preparations were used clinically during SARS.

Limonene has been proposed and reviewed as a candidate anti-viral and immune-supportive agent, particularly in the context of SARS-CoV-2. It demonstrates immunomodulatory effects including suppression of cytokine storm mediators (IL-1β, IL-6, MCP-1) and modulation of T-cell cytokine production. Evidence is preclinical and theoretical; no human antiviral clinical trials have been completed.

Preclinical studies show that L. gracile ethanol extract inhibits respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in vitro and in vivo, while flavone C-glycosides inhibit SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus entry by blocking spike-protein binding to ACE2. These are in vitro/animal findings; no human clinical data exist.

Luteolin is a flavone found in celery, thyme, and other plants with documented antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV, ZIKA, dengue, and HIV in vitro. It inhibits viral entry and replication and modulates cytokine production. Some clinical and mechanistic data support its role in viral immune response.

Lychee seed proanthocyanidins and lychee flower extract have demonstrated antiviral activity in vitro, including against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). A MDPI review of TCM sources for HSV-1 therapy confirmed that lychee flower ethanolic extract showed anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities, and that lychee flower extract inhibited HSV-1 proliferation and viral replication in vitro. Lychee seed is also documented in the TCM literature as possessing antiviral properties.

Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa) contains D-fraction and MD-fraction beta-glucan polysaccharides with clinically-studied immunomodulatory effects. It activates NK cells, macrophages, and T cells relevant to antiviral immune defense. Traditional use in Japanese and Chinese medicine for immune tonification and infection prevention is well-established.

A 2023 randomized clinical trial in mild COVID-19 patients showed A. vasica extract (500 mg/day) facilitated viral clearance within approximately 14 days without disease progression. Preclinical studies also demonstrated antiviral activity and anti-hypoxic immune modulation relevant to viral respiratory illness.

A placebo-controlled clinical trial in 250 HPV16/18-infected women found fermented mangosteen (28 g/day for 3 months) combined with antiviral therapy normalized inflammatory markers and improved colposcopy outcomes. In vitro studies confirm antiviral xanthone activity. Molecular docking studies suggest xanthones may interact with proteins of multiple viral strains.

Momordica charantia contains MAP30, a ribosome-inactivating protein with well-documented antiviral activity in vitro against HIV-1, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B, and SARS-CoV-2. Evidence is primarily from cell-based and in vitro studies; no human clinical trials of antiviral efficacy have been completed.

Monolaurin has demonstrated antiviral activity against multiple enveloped viruses in vitro and animal models, operating through lipid envelope disintegration and immune modulation. A 2025 prospective cohort study (n=2,712 healthcare workers) found higher serum monolaurin significantly associated with lower COVID-19 risk. It also modulates T-cell signaling and attenuates cytokine storm responses.

Multiple in-vitro studies have demonstrated antiviral activity of V. thapsus extracts against influenza A/B, herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-2), pseudorabies virus, and human coronavirus HCoV-229E. Verbascoside and phenolic fractions are the primary active constituents. All evidence is from cell and animal models; no human antiviral trials exist.

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a precursor to glutathione with antiviral and immune-modulatory properties against multiple viral pathogens including influenza and SARS-CoV-2. It reduces viral replication via antioxidant and interferon-signaling mechanisms. RCT and systematic review data support its role as adjunctive therapy in viral respiratory infections.

Neem is listed in the Frontiers in Pharmacology review (2022) as having documented antiviral activity, with in vitro studies showing activity against group B coxsackieviruses, herpes simplex virus, and other human viruses. Neem also elevates CD4+/CD8+ T-cell counts and reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines, supporting broader immunomodulatory effects. Human clinical trials for specific viral infections are lacking.

OA demonstrates antiviral activity in preclinical studies against HSV-1 (including acyclovir-resistant strains), HIV, influenza, and hepatitis B/C viruses. Its anti-HSV-1 mechanism involves disruption of the viral helicase-primase complex (UL8), blocking replication at the immediate early stage of infection.

Oleuropein is the primary secoiridoid phenolic in olive leaf with documented antiviral activity against HIV, RSV, influenza, and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. It inhibits viral entry by blocking ACE-2 receptor binding and was studied as the key active in a clinical trial of olive leaf extract in COVID-19 patients.

Human RCTs have demonstrated that pleuran (β-1,3/1,6-D-glucan from P. ostreatus) reduces the duration and severity of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) episodes and lowers incidence of viral respiratory tract infections. In a 90-patient RCT, active pleuran treatment caused significantly shorter HSV-1 symptom duration versus placebo.

Papaya leaf extract has been evaluated in multiple clinical trials for dengue viral fever, with a 2013 open-label RCT of 228 dengue patients showing significant platelet count increases in those receiving papaya leaf juice for 3 days. Systematic reviews confirm more significant platelet recovery with papaya leaf extract vs. controls in dengue. Mechanistic data show the extract modulates dengue-related immune cytokines.

Pau d'arco (Tabebuia impetiginosa) inner bark has traditional use by Amazonian indigenous peoples for infections, including viral conditions. Its primary bioactives lapachol and beta-lapachone demonstrate antiviral activity against retroviruses, herpes viruses, and influenza. Modern evidence supports traditional use for viral immune support.

Pelargonium sidoides (South African geranium, umckaloabo) root extract has multiple RCTs confirming efficacy for acute bronchitis (primarily viral) and upper respiratory infections. EPs 7630 standardized extract is approved in Germany for acute bronchitis. Mechanisms include direct antiviral activity and immune stimulation.

Perilla frutescens extracts demonstrate documented antiviral activity including inhibition of HIV-1 replication in vitro. The herb's immune modulatory effects include upregulation of FcγR-mediated phagocytosis and T-cell receptor signaling. Traditional use includes perilla for infectious febrile illnesses in TCM.

P. major aqueous extract has been tested in vitro against herpesviruses (HSV-1, HSV-2) and adenoviruses (ADV-3, ADV-8, ADV-11), showing slight anti-herpes activity. Immunostimulatory activity has been confirmed experimentally. Pectic polysaccharides from P. major have immunostimulatory properties. P. major is a long-standing traditional Chinese medicine for viral diseases from cold to viral hepatitis.

Platycodon grandiflorum exhibits documented antiviral activity against multiple respiratory viruses including SARS-CoV, blocking viral replication stages and activating host immune defenses including T cells and macrophages. A 2025 systematic review of PubMed/Web of Science literature confirmed broad-spectrum antiviral effects.

A 2025 systematic review (PMC/MDPI, Molecules) found platycodon inhibits SARS-CoV and other viruses by blocking viral replication stages and activating T cell and macrophage function. An 8-week randomized controlled trial of red platycodon root extract demonstrated enhancement of human immune function. Platycodin D modulates NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, and MAPK pathways to amplify host antiviral immunity.

PUPS has SFDA-approved pharmaceutical status in China for hepatitis B, with 11,703 documented clinical cases. The polysaccharides activate macrophages via TLR4, enhance IFN-γ-stimulated immune cytokines, and augment NK cell and lymphocyte activity.

In vitro studies demonstrate that secoiridoid constituents of Ligustrum lucidum inhibit RSV, parainfluenza 3, and influenza A, while polysaccharide and oleanolic acid fractions modulate immune cell activity. These antiviral and immunomodulatory mechanisms converge in preclinical data. Human evidence is limited to one small combination-product RCT in cancer patients.

Bee propolis is a resinous mixture with documented broad-spectrum antiviral activity in vitro, in vivo, and in preliminary clinical trials. Key bioactives including quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, caffeic acid, and chrysin inhibit SARS-CoV-2 spike-ACE2 interaction, reduce viral RNA synthesis, and modulate cytokine production. Multiple in vitro and clinical studies support respiratory antiviral applications.

Pycnogenol (French maritime pine bark extract) contains procyanidins and phenolic acids with antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. Clinical studies demonstrate it reduces the frequency and severity of influenza and respiratory infections. It enhances NK cell activity and modulates cytokine responses during viral challenge.

Quercetin is a flavonoid polyphenol with well-documented broad-spectrum antiviral activity. It inhibits viral entry and replication across multiple virus families including SARS-CoV-2, influenza, HSV, RSV, HCV, and Ebola. A pragmatic RCT in early-stage COVID-19 confirmed clinical benefit when combined with curcumin alongside standard of care.

Quillaja-derived QS-21 has been used as an immune adjuvant in over 80 clinical trials involving approximately 15,000 patients, enhancing both antibody and T-cell responses to vaccine antigens. Quillaja extracts also demonstrate direct antiviral activity in vitro and in vivo against multiple viruses including rotavirus, HSV-1, HIV, and varicella zoster.

Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) is a medicinal mushroom with beta-glucans and triterpenoids that demonstrate immunomodulatory and antiviral properties. It has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for 2,000+ years as an immune tonic. RCTs confirm that Ganoderma beta-glucans modulate immune cell function relevant to antiviral defense.

Resveratrol is a polyphenol stilbene found in grapes and red wine with documented antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, EBV, and other viruses. It blocks viral RNA nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation, suppresses viral replication, and modulates immunity via SIRT1 and NF-κB pathways. In vitro evidence is strong; human data are emerging.

Rosmarinic acid has demonstrated antiviral activity in vitro against multiple viruses including herpes simplex virus (HSV-1, HSV-2), influenza, enterovirus, and SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus. Mechanisms include inhibition of viral attachment, replication, and viral protease activity. No human RCTs specifically for RA as an antiviral agent have been conducted.

Sambucus nigra (European black elder) is the species source of most clinical elderberry research. Its fruit extracts demonstrate antiviral activity against influenza and respiratory viruses, with multiple RCTs confirming reduction in cold and flu duration and severity. The WHO acknowledges traditional use; modern pharmacological evidence is robust.

Human studies show that schisandrin C and Schisandra extracts reduce liver enzyme levels and virus levels in patients with hepatitis B and C. The comprehensive PMC review identifies antibacterial/antiviral properties among the major biological activities of Schisandra chinensis lignans. TCM has used schisandra for hepatitis-related viral illness.

Multiple preclinical studies demonstrate Schizonepeta extract has direct antiviral activity against enterovirus 71 and norovirus, suppresses viral replication, and induces antiviral interferons. In vivo mouse data show improved survival in EV71-infected animals. No human clinical antiviral trials exist.

Selenium is an essential trace mineral that functions in antiviral immune defense through incorporation into selenoproteins including glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase. Selenium deficiency is associated with increased viral mutation rates and disease severity. Multiple studies link selenium status to viral infection outcomes including HIV, influenza, and COVID-19.

Selenomethionine is the primary organic form of selenium used in supplements, with superior bioavailability compared to inorganic selenium. As a selenium source, it supports selenoprotein synthesis essential for antioxidant defense and antiviral immune function. Selenium supplementation studies use selenomethionine as the preferred form for immune and antiviral outcomes.

Lentinan from shiitake directly kills viruses in laboratory studies and has been used clinically for HIV and hepatitis B adjunct therapy in Japan and China. The Dai 2015 RCT showed shiitake increased salivary IgA by 12%, a key mucosal defense against respiratory viruses. Beta-glucans prime innate immune cells for faster viral response.

A 2026 Springer Nature Chinese Medicine study demonstrated that a 30% ethanol extract of Z. bungeanum suppresses human coronavirus OC43 infection in vitro by inhibiting viral entry and impairing autolysosome accumulation. Alkaloids from Z. bungeanum have shown anti-HBV activity in laboratory models. All evidence is in vitro.

Skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis and S. lateriflora) contains baicalein, baicalin, and wogonin with documented antiviral activity against influenza, SARS-CoV-2, HBV, HCV, and HIV. TCM use of Baikal skullcap for febrile viral infections spans 2,000+ years with extensive supporting modern in vitro evidence.

Oxymatrine and matrine from S. flavescens have established antiviral activity against hepatitis B virus, with Chinese regulatory approval for this use. Multiple clinical trials document positive antiviral outcomes in chronic HBV. Additional antiviral activity against other viruses is under investigation.

A. muricata extracts show antiviral activity in in vitro studies, including against bacteriophage surrogates, HIV-I replication, and HPV/herpes simplex-associated cancer cells. The antiviral mechanism involves acetogenins, ellagic acid, and eugenol-containing phytochemicals.

Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) is a blue-green algae with demonstrated immunomodulatory and antiviral properties. Its polysaccharide component calcium spirulan has shown direct antiviral activity. Clinical studies indicate spirulina supplementation modulates NK cell activity and cytokine production relevant to viral defense.

SJW's constituent hypericin and pseudohypericin demonstrate broad-spectrum antiviral activity in vitro and in vivo against HSV-1, HSV-2, HIV, influenza A and B, Epstein-Barr virus, and coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2. Hyperforin has demonstrated pan-coronavirus antiviral activity in cell culture. Clinical human evidence is very limited.

Sweet Annie (Artemisia annua) is the source of artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone with established antiviral activity against multiple viruses including SARS-CoV-2, HSV, HIV, CMV, and influenza. Artemisinin and its derivatives (artesunate, artemether) have been studied in clinical contexts for viral infections beyond malaria.

Swertia chirayita extracts and isolated compounds demonstrate anti-hepatitis B virus (anti-HBV) activity in in vitro cell-based assays. A 2015 study in FITOTERAPIA identified specific lignans from S. chirayita that inhibited HBsAg, HBeAg secretion, and HBV DNA replication. Broad antiviral activity is also noted across the genus.

Tanshinones are diterpenoid quinones from Salvia miltiorrhiza (danshen) with documented antiviral activity against influenza, HIV, HBV, HSV, and SARS-CoV-2. They inhibit viral integrase, reverse transcriptase, and neuraminidase. Traditional TCM use supports antiviral applications.

T. chebula extracts have documented antiviral activity against multiple viruses in pre-clinical studies. Chebulagic acid and chebulinic acid show superior direct antiviral activity against HSV-2 compared to acyclovir, preventing virus attachment and cell penetration. Antiviral activity against HSV-1, influenza, HIV, and SARS-CoV-2 proteins has been demonstrated in laboratory and computational studies.

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) contains thymol, carvacrol, and rosmarinic acid with documented antiviral activity against influenza and RSV. EMA and Commission E approve Thymus vulgaris preparations for respiratory tract infections. Clinical evidence includes RCTs for acute bronchitis showing efficacy comparable to antibiotic treatment.

Tinospora cordifolia (giloy/guduchi) is an important Ayurvedic herb with documented immunomodulatory and antiviral properties. Its polysaccharides and alkaloids enhance macrophage and NK cell function. Clinical studies in India show it reduces frequency and severity of recurrent respiratory infections and was studied as adjunctive therapy in dengue and COVID-19.

Trichosanthin (TCS), a ribosome-inactivating protein isolated from T. kirilowii root, demonstrates well-characterized anti-HIV activity, inhibiting HIV-1 replication in infected T cells and macrophages. TCS also inhibits HBV antigen expression and has been evaluated in clinical HIV trials. A second anti-HIV protein, TAP 29, has been isolated from T. kirilowii with distinct cytotoxicity profiles. Evidence for anti-HIV efficacy in clinical trials was limited by immune consequences of prolonged use.

Turkey tail mushroom (Trametes versicolor) contains polysaccharide-K (PSK) and polysaccharide-peptide (PSP) with well-documented immunomodulatory effects. Clinical evidence supports its role in enhancing antiviral immune defense including T cell and NK cell activity. It has been used in Asian traditional medicine and studied in clinical trials for immune support against viral pathogens including HPV.

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), the source of curcumin, has traditional use in Ayurvedic and Asian medicine for infectious and inflammatory conditions. Its primary active compound curcumin has demonstrated antiviral activity against multiple viruses and has been tested in clinical trials for COVID-19. Modern evidence supports the traditional use for viral immune support.

Umckaloabo is the traditional South African name for Pelargonium sidoides extract (EPs 7630) with multiple RCTs confirming efficacy for acute bronchitis and viral respiratory infections. German Commission E-approved pharmaceutical for acute bronchitis; direct antiviral and immunostimulatory mechanisms are well-characterized.

Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality from several viral infections, most notably measles. It supports lymphopoiesis, antibody production, and mucosal epithelial barrier integrity. WHO recommends high-dose vitamin A for measles in deficiency-endemic populations. Evidence across viral families is heterogeneous.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) supports multiple components of the antiviral immune response including antimicrobial and natural killer cell activity, lymphocyte proliferation, and chemotaxis. Plasma concentrations decline rapidly during viral infections. Regular supplementation reduces cold duration by 8% in adults and 14% in children.

Vitamin D plays an essential role in activating antiviral immune defenses by enhancing immune cell function, inducing antimicrobial peptides (cathelicidins and defensins), and modulating cytokine responses. Clinical supplementation protected against common cold overall, particularly in deficient individuals. Multiple trials support a role in reducing viral respiratory infection severity.

Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is the most biologically active supplemental form of vitamin D, with established roles in modulating both innate and adaptive antiviral immune responses. Clinical evidence supports its role in reducing respiratory viral infection risk, particularly in deficient individuals. It induces cathelicidins and defensins and modulates T cell responses.

Withanolides are the primary steroidal lactone bioactives from Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) responsible for immunomodulatory and antiviral effects. They inhibit NF-κB, activate NK cells, and have demonstrated in vitro antiviral activity against influenza, infectious bronchitis coronavirus, and HIV-1.

Wogonin is a bioactive flavone from Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) with antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. It inhibits viral replication including influenza, HIV, and HBV, and reduces viral-induced cytokine storm via NF-κB inhibition. Traditional use in TCM for febrile viral conditions is longstanding.

Zinc is an essential immunomodulatory mineral with well-documented antiviral activity. It supports innate and adaptive immune cell function, enhances interferon signaling against RNA viruses, inhibits viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity, and reduces cold duration by approximately 33% when taken within 24 hours of symptom onset.

Bidens pilosa (Spanish needle, hairy beggarticks) has traditional use in African, Latin American, and Asian folk medicine for fever and infectious diseases including those of viral etiology. Flavonoids and polyacetylenes from B. pilosa demonstrate antiviral activity against dengue, HIV, and influenza in preclinical studies.

Boswellia (frankincense, Boswellia serrata/sacra) has documented anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties mediated by boswellic acids, particularly AKBA. Traditional use in Ayurvedic and Middle Eastern medicine for infectious and inflammatory diseases spans millennia. Modern evidence suggests modulation of inflammatory pathways relevant to viral immune response, though direct antiviral clinical RCTs are limited.

Boswellic acids (particularly AKBA) from Boswellia species inhibit 5-lipoxygenase and NF-κB, reducing pro-inflammatory leukotriene and cytokine production relevant to viral inflammatory pathology. In vitro evidence shows inhibition of HIV replication. Traditional use in Ayurvedic and Middle Eastern medicine for infections is well-established.

Tuftsin, a peptide derived from splenic processing of IgG, stimulates macrophage and natural killer cell activity relevant to antiviral innate immunity. Tuftsin deficiency has been documented in AIDS patients. These are preclinical and associational findings; no clinical trials have tested bovine spleen supplements specifically for viral immune responses.

In vitro studies confirm antiviral properties of calendula extracts against multiple virus types. The plant is documented as an immunomodulator across traditional systems and pharmacological reviews. Clinical evidence of antiviral benefit in humans is absent; evidence remains preclinical and traditional.

Traditional Amazonian use of camu camu includes combating viral infections. Its vitamin C content supports interferon synthesis, NK cell activity, and lymphocyte proliferation — all relevant to antiviral immunity. A clinical study examining camu camu's effect on gut microbiota in HIV/AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy was noted as underway in MSK's integrative medicine database.

Forsythia suspensa (Lian Qiao) is a fundamental TCM anti-viral herb used for febrile and respiratory viral conditions for 2,000+ years. It contains forsythin, phillyrin, and rutin with antiviral activity against influenza and SARS-CoV-2. It is a component of classical TCM antiviral formulas including Shuang Huang Lian.

Ginkgo biloba leaf extracts contain flavonoids and terpene lactones with immunomodulatory and limited antiviral properties. Traditional use in Chinese medicine for respiratory conditions spans centuries. Some in vitro studies show activity against influenza and HIV, but clinical evidence for viral immune response specifically is limited.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a North American herb containing berberine and hydrastine with traditional Native American use as an anti-infective agent. Modern research supports berberine's antiviral activity against multiple viruses. While traditional use for viral conditions is well-established, specific clinical RCTs for viral immune response are limited.

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) has traditional use in European herbal medicine for viral infections, particularly cold sores (HSV). Its polyphenolic components including rosmarinic acid inhibit viral attachment. Clinical trials confirm topical lemon balm cream reduces herpes labialis symptoms and recurrence.

Lion's mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) has traditional use in Chinese and Japanese medicine for digestive and immune conditions. Modern research has focused primarily on neuroprotection (hericenones and erinacines); immunostimulatory effects including macrophage and NK cell activation have been documented in in vitro and animal studies relevant to viral immune response.

Morus alba leaves are documented in TCM for treating Wind-Heat conditions analogous to viral upper respiratory infections, with traditional use for colds and flu. In vitro studies demonstrate antibacterial and some antiviral activity. No human clinical trials for viral infections have been identified.

Olive (Olea europaea) leaf has traditional use in Mediterranean folk medicine for infectious and febrile conditions. Its primary phenolic, oleuropein, has demonstrated antiviral properties against HIV, RSV, and influenza in preclinical studies, with one RCT showing benefit in COVID-19 patients. Traditional use for viral infections is well-established in Mediterranean herbal medicine.

Oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential oil and extracts contain carvacrol and thymol with demonstrated antiviral activity against influenza, RSV, norovirus, and human coronavirus in vitro. Traditional use in Mediterranean herbal medicine for respiratory infections is longstanding. Clinical evidence for antiviral immune support is primarily in vitro.

Plantago major contains caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and phenolic compounds with documented antiviral activity in vitro. Pectic polysaccharides have immunostimulatory effects. The 2025 review noted antiviral effects in clinical observations. However, human RCT evidence for a specific viral immune endpoint is absent.

Red root is used in integrative herbal medicine for supporting the immune response during viral illness through lymphatic and splenic stimulation. Native American use for colds, flu, and fevers historically encompasses viral illness. Alkaloids in Ceanothus have demonstrated in vitro antiviral properties as a class; no specific clinical antiviral trials exist for this plant.

Sweet wormwood has broad-spectrum antiviral activity documented in in vitro studies against numerous DNA and RNA viruses including SARS-CoV-2. Traditional use includes treatment of fevers from viral infections. Human clinical trial data for viral infections other than malaria are lacking.