Mirra

Myrrh (Commiphora spp.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Botanical Classification, and Natural Source

Myrrh is a gum-resin extracted from a few small, thorny tree species of the Commiphora genus, belonging to the family Burseraceae. More specifically, myrrh is the resinous substance secreted by plants of the genus Commiphora. The most pharmacologically and commercially significant species include Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (also referred to as Commiphora molmol), which is the primary source of medicinal myrrh, as well as Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl., the source of guggul resin used in Ayurvedic practice, and Commiphora erythrea, the source of bisabol myrrh (opopanax).

Commiphora myrrh is commonly found in the southern part of Arabia, the northeastern part of Africa, in Somalia, and Kenya. Myrrh trees grow in tropical and subtropical areas, and are particularly distributed in southern Arabia, including Yemen and Oman; northeastern Africa, including Somalia, Ethiopia, and Sudan; and the Indian subcontinent, including India and Pakistan.

When a cut on a tree penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree secretes a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. Myrrh is harvested by repeatedly cutting the trees to bleed the gum, which is waxy and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. When the bark of this sturdy bush is wounded, ducts inside produce a granular secretion that flows as a yellow liquid and hardens to a reddish-brown mass. This is brittle, semi-transparent, and oily, with a rough powdery surface. The resin smells aromatic; tastes acrid, aromatic, and bitter; and sticks to the teeth.

Common Names and Synonyms

• Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. — the primary officinal species for medicinal myrrh
• Commiphora molmol Engl. — a name frequently encountered in the parasitological and African literature, widely considered a synonym or closely related taxon
• Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. — guggul, the principal Ayurvedic species
• Common names include: myrrh, gum myrrh, African myrrh, Arabian myrrh, Herabol myrrh, Somali myrrh, guggul (for C. mukul)

2. Common Forms and Preparations

Modern studies have shown that myrrh is 3–8% essential oil, 25–40% alcohol-soluble resin, and 30–60% water-soluble gum. These three fractions underpin the main commercial and medicinal preparations in use today:

• Crude resin (raw gum-resin): The dried exudate in lump or pebble form, used historically and in herbal dispensaries.
• Essential oil: Myrrh essential oil (MEO) is prepared by the fractional distillation of the resins obtained from the plant Commiphora myrrha. The volatile MEO is thick and pale yellow in colour.
• Tincture: An alcohol-based extract, used topically for oral and wound care.
• Powder and capsules: The ground resin is encapsulated for oral supplemental use.
• Standardized oleo-resin extract (Mirazid®): Multidrug pharmaceutical preparations containing myrrh oil are commercially available; in addition, Mirazid®, an anthelmintic soft gelatin capsule containing purified myrrh oleo-resin extract, is available.
• Herbal combination products: The herbal medicinal product Myrrhinil-Intest, used in clinical studies, is a combination of 100 mg myrrh powder, 50 mg coffee charcoal powder, and 70 mg chamomile flower dry extract per coated tablet.
• Mouthwash formulations: A myrrh mouthwash has been prepared at a concentration of 0.5% w/w.

The essential oil has applications in cosmetics, aromatherapy, and perfumery.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

Myrrh resin was traded in the ancient world, and has been used throughout history in medicine, in ritual, and to make perfume and incense. Its use is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament and in Islamic texts, as well as by ancient historians.

Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, myrrh was known before 3000 BCE and was included in several medical treatments. For example, it was mentioned in some prescriptions for wound healing and bleeding control in the Ebers Papyrus, which dates back to 1700 BCE. Myrrh was used by the ancient Egyptians, along with natron, for the embalming of mummies.

Ancient Greece and Rome

The ancient Greeks and Romans used myrrh as a remedy for various ailments. Herodotus, a Greek historian living in the fifth century BCE, mentioned myrrh in his writings as a highly prized material. Myrrh was a common analgesic and had been used to clean wounds and sores for more than 2,000 years, until Europeans discovered morphine.

Religious and Cultural Traditions

Myrrh is mentioned as a rare perfume in several places in the Hebrew Bible. Myrrh resin was traded in the ancient world. In the Middle East, the Eastern Orthodox Church traditionally uses oil scented with myrrh and other fragrances to perform the sacrament of chrismation, commonly referred to as "receiving the Chrism." According to the hadith of Muhammad, narrated by Abu Nuaim on the authority of Abban bin Saleh bin Anas, Muhammad said, "Fumigate your houses with mugwort, myrrh and thyme."

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Written records for the medicinal use of myrrh have been dated as far back as the Tang Dynasty in China, about 600 AD. Myrrh is famous in Chinese traditional medicine, along with the resinous frankincense, for the treatment of blood stagnation (known together as the "blood moving medicine"), inflammatory diseases, as well as relief of swelling and pain. In Tibetan medicine, myrrh (called Ge Ge), Mukul myrrh, and Kul myrrh are used for the treatment of anthrax, acute and chronic liver diseases, leprosy, stroke, and plague. In Uyghur medicine, C. mukul has the functions of reducing swelling, strengthening tendons and nourishing muscles, relieving cough and phlegm, and moistening the bowel.

Ayurvedic Medicine

The practice of Ayurvedic medicine in India can be traced back to the Vedic era of 5,000 BC, noted for being the oldest recorded system of integrative medicine in the world. About 2,300 years ago, Ayurveda described nearly 2,000 herbal medicines, including Guggul Resin, which was used to treat various diseases, including obesity, osteoarthritis, arthritis, constipation, liver disease, inflammation, anemia, and diabetes.

Traditional Uses Across Cultures

Myrrh has been used traditionally for treating wounds, mouth ulcers, aches, fractures, stomach disorders, microbial infections, and inflammatory diseases. It has been used as an antiseptic, astringent, anthelmintic, carminative, emmenagogue, and as an expectorant. It has many medicinal uses and has been used widely in clinical practice for treatment of pain and inflammatory diseases, such as stomach complaints, skin infections, ache, dysmenorrhea, and chest ailments, in India, China, Rome, and Greece.

4. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

More than 300 types of secondary metabolites have been identified through phytochemical studies of this genus. The resin can be broken down into three main chemical fractions with distinct constituents:

Volatile / Essential Oil Fraction (3–8%)

The chemical constituents of essential oils include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and small molecular aromatic compounds. It consists of various chemical constituents including cadinene, elemol, eugenol, cuminaldehyde, numerous furanosesquiterpenes including furanogermacranes, furanodiene, furanodienone, curzerene, and lindestrene, as well as furanoeudesma-1,3-diene. GC/MS analysis has identified furano-eudesma-1,3-diene (15.99%) and 2-acetoxy-furanodiene (26.82%) as the major compounds in the hexane extract and essential oil, respectively.

Abundance of furanosesquiterpenoids in the genus Commiphora can be used to define the genus. Studies on the phytochemicals of resin from C. myrrh have shown that it contains heerabolene, elemol, acadinene, cuminaldehyde, eugenol, and a multitude of furano-sesquiterpenes, including furanodienone, furanodiene, curzerenone, and lindestrene.

Alcohol-Soluble Resin Fraction (25–40%)

Chemical constituents in resins include diterpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, and lignans. A pimarane diterpenoid, aracopimaric acid, and two abietane diterpenoids, abietic acid and dehydroabietic acid, were all isolated from C. myrrha. Triterpenoids were the most biologically active compounds identified in the resin of species of Commiphora; however, flavonoids and lignans majorly occur in the plant stem.

Among the most studied individual triterpenoids are myrrhanol A and myrrhanone A: Myrrhanol A and myrrhanone A were characterized and myrrhanol A displays a potent anti-inflammatory effect.

Water-Soluble Gum Fraction (30–60%)

The main components of gum are sugars, protein, and ash.

Guggulsterones (Primarily from C. mukul)

Guggulsterone is a bioactive steroid isolated mainly from Commiphora mukul. The two isomers, Z- and E-guggulsterone, have shown a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects, including anti-proliferation, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects.

5. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

The mechanism of action of myrrh as an antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agent involves the orchestration of complex immune-regulatory pathways through suppression of pro-inflammatory mediators and modulation of MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) signaling pathways.

At a more granular level, animal and in vitro research has clarified specific pathways. Myrrh inhibited LPS-induced productions of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandin E₂, and tumor necrosis factor-α but not of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 in peritoneal macrophages. In addition, myrrh inhibited LPS-induced activation of c-jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK) but not of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and nuclear factor-κB.

Antimicrobial Mechanisms

The antimicrobial effects of myrrh seem to be hinged to a variety of mechanisms such as increased number of leukocytes, triggered phagocytic activity, and pro-inflammatory responses. In vitro studies on essential oil fractions have demonstrated direct antibacterial activity. Myrrh essential oil (MEO) exhibited activity with greater than 99.999% killing of both Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa tested strains after 2 hours contact time.

Intestinal Barrier Protection

An impaired intestinal barrier function is a key mechanism in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a term that comprises Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Research has demonstrated that myrrh has a direct effect on the intestinal mucosal barrier, and this forms part of the mechanistic rationale for its use in gastrointestinal disease. The combination product containing myrrh, coffee charcoal, and chamomile has been studied in a co-culture cell model, with findings suggesting modulation of cytokine/chemokine signaling and protection of barrier integrity.

Analgesic and Anesthetic Activity

Pharmacological studies have shown that myrrh possesses multiple activities, including anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, anesthetic, and antimicrobial effects. The furanosesquiterpene fraction is generally regarded as responsible for analgesic properties.

Uterine Stimulant Activity

Myrrh (C. molmol) is known to stimulate uterine tone and promote uterine blood flow. This property underpins both its traditional emmenagogue use and its contraindication in pregnancy (see Safety section).

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

6.1 Oral Health: Periodontal Disease, Gingivitis, and Wound Healing

This is the area with the most substantial body of human clinical evidence for myrrh.

Periodontal disease remains a prevalent chronic condition worldwide, and interest has grown in natural adjunctive agents such as Commiphora myrrh for their potential antimicrobial and healing properties. A systematic review evaluated the antimicrobial and clinical effects of myrrh in managing periodontal disease, gingival healing, and pathogen reduction across in vitro, animal, and clinical studies. This systematic review highlights the potential antimicrobial and clinical benefits of myrrh in periodontal therapy, particularly in reducing plaque accumulation and supporting early wound healing.

However, the clinical evidence has important limitations: myrrh shows promising potential as an adjunct in periodontal therapy, supported by in vitro and preclinical findings; however, further well-designed, standardized clinical trials and translational animal studies are essential to confirm its efficacy. Critically, in clinical trials, the effect of myrrh on gingival inflammation was not statistically significant.

On wound healing specifically, a randomized controlled trial examined the use of a myrrh mouthwash following dental extraction. Patients in the test group were prescribed to use Commiphora molmol (myrrh) extract as a mouthwash twice a day for 7 days, beginning from the 1st post-operative day, at a concentration of 0.5% w/w. There were no significant between-group differences in the local signs except for swelling, tenderness, and socket size, which had a higher frequency in the control group. The study group had a significant decrease in inflammatory signs after one postoperative week. Since all participants did not show preoperative signs of infection and were advised on good oral hygiene, the chance of error was lowered; therefore, the myrrh mouthwash can be considered to have a wound healing enhancement effect.

One prior study concluded that the use of myrrh mouthwash provided antimicrobial activity, and shortened the time required for wound healing by avoiding a pronounced inflammatory response.

Evidence strength: Moderate for short-term post-surgical oral wound healing; weak-to-moderate for reduction in plaque and gingivitis in clinical trials (statistically non-significant in at least one systematic review meta-analysis). In vitro antimicrobial activity is consistently demonstrated but does not automatically translate to equivalent clinical outcomes.

6.2 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) and Gastrointestinal Disorders

Myrrh has been studied as a component of a fixed herbal combination (Myrrhinil-Intest®) in IBD. Evidence of efficacy is available for a combination of myrrh, extract of chamomile flower, and coffee charcoal in patients with ulcerative colitis.

The pivotal human trial was a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy study. The herbal mixture of myrrh, dry extract of chamomile flowers, and coffee charcoal has anti-inflammatory and antidiarrheal properties. In the only so far available randomized, double-blind, double-dummy study, 96 patients with inactive UC were randomized to receive either the herbal preparation or mesalazine over a 12-month period. There was no significant difference in the relapse rate between the two groups (45% in the mesalazine group and 53% in the herbal group). No significant differences were also shown in relapse-free time, endoscopy, and fecal biomarkers. The herbal preparation was well tolerated and showed a good safety profile.

A non-interventional observational study also examined the combination product. 1,062 patients (mean age 43.2±17.8 years, range 12–89, 42.3% men) were included in this study of a product containing 100 mg myrrh powder, 50 mg coffee charcoal powder, and 70 mg chamomile flower dry extract per coated tablet.

A mechanistic cell-culture study found that myrrh has potent therapeutic value in the amelioration of experimental colitis in laboratory animals by downregulating the expression of proinflammatory mediators and improving endogenous antioxidative activities. This was an animal/in vitro study and does not constitute clinical evidence.

Evidence strength: The combination product containing myrrh for maintenance of UC remission has moderate-quality evidence from one RCT suggesting non-inferiority to mesalazine; however, the study was in a specialized combination product, and the contribution of myrrh alone cannot be isolated. The evidence for myrrh as a single agent in IBD is largely preclinical.

6.3 Antiparasitic Activity (Schistosomiasis and Fascioliasis)

One of the most extensively clinically studied applications of myrrh involves its antiparasitic use under the brand name Mirazid® in Egypt.

An early study reported encouraging results: Myrrh is an oleo-gum resin from the stem of the plant Commiphora molmol. This study was carried out on 204 patients with schistosomiasis. The drug was given at a dose of 10 mg/kg of body weight/day for three days, and induced a cure rate of 91.7%. Re-treatment of cases who did not respond with a dose of 10 mg/kg of body weight/day for six days gave a cure rate of 76.5%, increasing the overall cure rate to 98.09%. The drug was well tolerated, and side effects were mild and transient.

For fascioliasis (liver fluke infection), a preliminary study reported: Myrrh from the stem of the Commiphora molmol tree is an oleo-gum resin. Seven patients were studied who were passing Fasciola eggs in their stools. The formulation consisting of 8 parts of resin and 3.5 parts of volatile oils, all extracted from myrrh, was given in a dose of 12 mg/kg per day for 6 consecutive days in the morning on an empty stomach. Patients were followed for 3 months. The therapy proved to be effective, with pronounced improvement of the general condition and amelioration of all symptoms and signs. A dramatic drop in the egg count was detected at the end of treatment.

However, these positive findings have been strongly challenged. One experimental study failed to demonstrate a satisfactory anti-schistosomal action of different derivatives of myrrh, including the commercial preparation, tested at different doses against many strains of S. mansoni. Furthermore, two randomized controlled clinical trials published in 2005 demonstrated negligible cure rates of Mirazid in schistosomiasis mansoni.

Evidence strength: Conflicting and overall currently insufficient. Early open-label studies reported high cure rates, but subsequent RCTs did not replicate these findings, particularly for schistosomiasis. The parasitological literature on Mirazid is mixed, and the agent has not been validated as a reliable antiparasitic treatment by controlled trials.

6.4 Antimicrobial Activity

In vitro evidence for antimicrobial activity is consistent and robust. Myrrh essential oil (MEO) was tested against four multidrug-resistant isolates: S. aureus (MRSA, sputum), Escherichia coli (urine), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (wound), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (sputum). Highest bactericidal activity was observed against Ps. aeruginosa while lowest was against K. pneumoniae (99.59% and 54.04% killing, respectively, after 2 hours contact time).

Evidence strength: Strong in vitro evidence for antibacterial activity against multiple strains, including some multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Clinical (human) evidence for systemic antimicrobial efficacy is limited; most studies are in vitro or animal models. The clinical oral health studies (see section 6.1) provide the most direct human evidence.

6.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

The anti-inflammatory properties of myrrh have been investigated primarily in animal and cell-based models. Administration of myrrh reduced the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced mortality and bacterial counts and inhibited inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, administration of myrrh attenuated CLP-induced liver damage, which was mainly evidenced by decreased infiltration of leukocytes and aspartate aminotransferase/alanine aminotransferase level. Taken together, these results provide evidence for the anti-inflammatory and antibacterial potential of myrrh in sepsis (animal study).

Prolonged or high-concentration exposure resulted in excessive inflammation and tissue damage, indicating a dose- and duration-dependent response, which underscores the importance of controlled dosing and limited application duration for the therapeutic use of myrrh.

Evidence strength: Substantial preclinical (in vitro and animal) evidence. Translational human clinical evidence is limited; the most meaningful human data comes indirectly through studies on oral health and IBD.

6.6 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity

Cytotoxic studies of both the essential oil and hexane extract of myrrh on human liver cancer (HepG2), human breast cancer (MCF-7), and colon cancer cell lines (HCT-116) revealed promising in vitro activity. The highest activity was recorded for the essential oil on MCF-7 with an IC₅₀ of 10.93 ± 0.32 μg/ml.

Evidence strength: Preliminary in vitro only. There are no human clinical trials assessing myrrh for cancer treatment or prevention. These findings should not be interpreted as evidence of clinical anticancer efficacy.

6.7 Hypolipidemic Activity (Guggul / C. mukul)

The species Commiphora mukul and its active constituents, the guggulsterones, have been studied in the context of lipid metabolism. Guggulsterone is a bioactive steroid isolated mainly from Commiphora mukul. The two isomers, Z- and E-guggulsterone, have shown a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects, including anti-proliferation, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. Clinical trials of guggul for hyperlipidemia have produced mixed results in the literature, with some studies showing modest lipid reduction and others failing to demonstrate significant effects versus placebo. A definitive, high-quality body of clinical evidence is currently lacking.

Evidence strength: Weak-to-moderate for C. mukul/guggul in hyperlipidemia; results from clinical trials are inconsistent.

6.8 Antifungal and Antiprotozoal Activity

A clinical study examined the effect of myrrh in women with metronidazole-resistant trichomoniasis. Potentially eligible patients were identified for a 3-year retrospective inclusion, and through treating physicians, for the 2-year prospective inclusion (patients who met the case definition of metronidazole-resistant vaginal trichomoniasis were selected). The study evaluated myrrh's potential as an alternative antiprotozoal agent in this difficult-to-treat population, although small sample sizes limit conclusions.

Evidence strength: Very limited human evidence; primarily supported by in vitro data and small, uncontrolled clinical observations.

7. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Myrrh

• Oral cavity and dentition: Periodontal disease, gingivitis, aphthous ulcers, post-extraction wound healing, plaque reduction
• Gastrointestinal system: Ulcerative colitis (remission maintenance), Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, acute diarrhea, carminative and antispasmodic use
• Immunological/Infectious: Antimicrobial activity against bacteria (including multidrug-resistant strains), antifungal, antiprotozoal, and anthelmintic uses
• Musculoskeletal: Traditionally used for arthritis, joint pain, trauma, and fractures in TCM and Ayurveda
• Integumentary (skin): Wound healing, antiseptic for cuts and abrasions, eczema, ulcers, boils
• Reproductive: Traditional emmenagogue use; episiotomy wound healing (small clinical trials); studied in incomplete abortion (preliminary RCT)
• Metabolic / Cardiovascular: Guggul (C. mukul) studied for hyperlipidemia; hypolipidemic and hypolipidemic activity reported in preclinical models
• Respiratory: Traditional expectorant and anticatarrhal use; insufficient clinical evidence

8. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported as stated in the referenced sources and do not constitute therapeutic recommendations.

• Antiparasitic (Mirazid® capsules, schistosomiasis): In a study by Sheir et al., myrrh was administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg per day for three successive days to patients with schistosomiasis.
• Antiparasitic (Mirazid®, fascioliasis): The drug — a formulation consisting of 8 parts of resin and 3.5 parts of volatile oils extracted from myrrh — was given in a dose of 12 mg/kg per day for 6 consecutive days in the morning on an empty stomach.
• Antiparasitic (Mirazid®, schistosomiasis in children): Mirazid was given as 10 mg/kg per day, an hour before breakfast, for 3 consecutive days in schistosomiasis and for 6 days in fascioliasis.
• IBD herbal combination (Myrrhinil-Intest®, tablets): Each coated tablet contained 100 mg myrrh powder, 50 mg coffee charcoal powder, and 70 mg chamomile flower dry extract.
• Post-surgical oral wound healing (mouthwash): A myrrh mouthwash was prepared at a concentration of 0.5% w/w, used twice daily for 7 days.
• Powder (general): The recommended daily dose of myrrh powder is reported as 0.3 to 1.5 g, generally divided into several doses taken throughout the day.
• Oleocapsules (British Pharmacopoeia): According to the British Pharmacopoeia Commission, oleocapsules are available in dosages of 150 mg to be taken 2 to 6 times per day, or 300 mg to 900 mg to be taken 2 to 3 times per day.

9. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Pregnancy

Myrrh is contraindicated for use during pregnancy, and if there is excessive uterine bleeding, because it promotes menstruation. This contraindication is supported by a published case report: A 32-year-old pregnant woman with a history of infertility and recurrent miscarriages used large amounts of myrrh herbs for 2 months, since a traditional healer told her that her current pregnancy would progress safely by its use. Her pregnancy was complicated with acute abdominal pain. Her symptom was relieved as soon as she stopped taking myrrh. It was assumed that myrrh acted as a uterine stimulant causing the acute abdominal pain. In ancient traditional Persian manuscripts, it has been noted that myrrh may act as a uterine stimulant and probably cause complete abortion.

Dose-Dependent Toxicity

Prolonged or high-concentration exposure resulted in excessive inflammation and tissue damage, indicating a dose- and duration-dependent response, which underscores the importance of controlled dosing and limited application duration for the therapeutic use of myrrh. Animal toxicology work with myrrh essential oil via subcutaneous injection at higher doses showed histopathological changes: in the first-phase study with higher doses, the mice showed granuloma formation at the site of injection. The liver showed dilated sinusoids and enlarged central vein. In the spleen, the distinction between red and white pulp was lost. The kidney showed the degeneration of glomerulus. Enzyme activity and body weight were also decreased by the higher dose. These findings were from an animal model using subcutaneous injection and do not directly predict oral human toxicology.

Drug Interactions

The interactions between myrrh and medicines are not fully understood. As with most dietary supplements, research on drug interactions with myrrh is incomplete. One source identifies a specific incompatibility: myrrh is incompatible with cyclosporine.

Known Pharmacological Interactions of Note

Myrrh has documented effects on uterine tone and blood flow. It is known to stimulate uterine tone and promote uterine blood flow. This biological activity raises theoretical concern for interactions with anticoagulants, uterotonics, or other agents affecting the reproductive system, though direct drug interaction trials in humans are largely absent from the literature.

General Tolerability in Clinical Trials

In the 204-patient schistosomiasis trial, the drug was well tolerated, and side effects were mild and transient. The herbal IBD preparation (containing myrrh) was well tolerated and showed a good safety profile in the UC maintenance trial.

Pediatric Use

There is little reliable information on the safety of using myrrh in children.

References

• The Genus Commiphora: An Overview of Its Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Quality Control — PMC (2024)
• Commiphora myrrh: A phytochemical and pharmacological update — Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology (2022)
• Myrrh — Commiphora chemistry — PubMed (Hanuš et al., 2005)
• Seeing the Unseen of the Combination of Two Natural Resins, Frankincense and Myrrh — PMC (2019)
• Frankincense and Myrrh Suppress Inflammation via Regulation of the Metabolic Profiling and the MAPK Signaling Pathway — PMC (2015)
• Myrrh Inhibits LPS-Induced Inflammatory Response and Protects from Cecal Ligation and Puncture-Induced Sepsis — PMC (2012)
• Myrrh in the Management of Periodontal Disease and Gingival Healing: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — PMC (2025)
• Efficacy of Commiphora myrrh Mouthwash on Early Wound Healing after Tooth Extraction: A Randomized Controlled Trial — PMC (2021)
• Efficacy and Safety of Myrrh in Patients with Incomplete Abortion: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Study — PMC (2020)
• Anti-Inflammatory and Barrier-Stabilising Effects of Myrrh, Coffee Charcoal and Chamomile Flower Extract in a Co-Culture Cell Model of the Intestinal Mucosa — PMC (2020)
• Herbal and Plant Therapy in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease — PMC (2015)
• Efficacy and Safety of a Herbal Medicinal Product Containing Myrrh, Chamomile and Coffee Charcoal for the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders: A Non-Interventional Study — PMC (2015)
• Myrrh Attenuates Oxidative and Inflammatory Processes in Acetic Acid-Induced Ulcerative Colitis — PMC (2016)
• Distinct Kinetics in the Frequency of Peripheral CD4+ T Cells in Patients with UC Experiencing a Flare during Treatment with Mesalazine or with a Herbal Preparation of Myrrh, Chamomile, and Coffee Charcoal — PMC (2014)
• Myrrh Protects against IL-13-Induced Epithelial Barrier Breakdown in HT-29/B6 Cells — PMC (2023)
• Efficacy of Myrrh in the Treatment of Human Schistosomiasis mansoni — ResearchGate (Sheir et al.)
• Preliminary Study of Therapeutic Efficacy of a New Fasciolicidal Drug Derived from Commiphora molmol (Myrrh) — PubMed (Massoud et al., 2001)
• Ineffectiveness of Myrrh-Derivative Mirazid against Schistosomiasis and Fascioliasis in Humans — WHO Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (2010)
• Evaluation of Myrrh (Mirazid) Therapy in Fascioliasis and Intestinal Schistosomiasis in Children — PubMed (Soliman et al., 2004)
• Bactericidal Activity of Myrrh Extracts and Two Dosage Forms against Standard Bacterial Strains and Multidrug-Resistant Clinical Isolates with GC/MS Profiling — PMC (2020)
• Effects of Myrrh on Intra-Oral Mucosal Wounds Compared with Tetracycline- and Chlorhexidine-Based Mouthwashes — PMC (2013)
• Risks of Myrrh Usage in Pregnancy — PubMed (2017)
• The Effect of Commiphora molmol (Myrrh) in Treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis Infection — PMC (2012)
• Subcutaneous Injection of Myrrh Essential Oil in Mice: Acute and Subacute Toxicity Study — PMC (2019)
• Herbal Medicinal Products for Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Focus on Those Assessed in Double-Blind Randomised Controlled Trials — Phytotherapy Research (2019)
• Myrrh — Wikipedia (as secondary reference for botanical and historical context)
• Myrrh — ScienceDirect Topics Overview