Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Nutrition and Natural-Health Reference
1. Definition and Overview
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is defined as a chronic intestinal inflammation that results from host-microbial interactions in a genetically susceptible individual. IBD is a group of autoimmune diseases characterized by inflammation of both the small and large intestine, in which elements of the digestive system are attacked by the body's own immune system, encompassing two major forms: Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC).
IBD is a heterogeneous state of chronic intestinal inflammation with no exact known cause. The pathophysiological mechanisms of IBD are not fully understood, although these diseases have been studied for several decades. IBD affects nearly 2 million people in Europe and 1.6 million people in the United States, and epidemiological studies have shown an increasing incidence of IBD in developing regions such as South America, Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe.
2. Types of IBD and How They Present
2.1 Crohn's Disease (CD)
Crohn's disease is a transmural inflammatory disease that may involve any part of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus, although in most cases the terminal ileum is affected. The transmural (full-thickness) nature of CD inflammation distinguishes it from UC at the tissue level.
2.2 Ulcerative Colitis (UC)
Ulcerative colitis is characterized by a diffuse mucosal inflammation involving mainly the rectum and adjacent colonic tissue. The rectum is always involved in ulcerative colitis, and the disease primarily involves continuous lesions of the mucosa and submucosa. Unlike Crohn's disease, which can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract, UC characteristically involves the large bowel.
2.3 IBD Unspecified (IBDU)
Although both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease have distinct pathologic findings, approximately 10–15% of patients cannot be classified definitively into either type; in such patients, the disease is diagnosed as IBD unspecified (IBDU).
2.4 Symptoms and Disease Course
Patients affected by these diseases experience abdominal symptoms, including diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloody stools, and vomiting. Systemic symptoms are common in IBD and include fever, sweats, malaise, and arthralgias.
Both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease usually have waxing and waning intensity and severity. When the patient is symptomatic due to active inflammation, the disease is considered to be in an active stage — a flare of IBD.
3. Body Systems Involved
While IBD is primarily a disorder of the gastrointestinal tract, it involves multiple organ systems and physiological processes.
3.1 The Immune System
Inflammatory bowel diseases are related to an immunological imbalance of the intestinal mucosa, mainly associated with cells of the adaptive immune system, which respond against self-antigens producing chronic inflammatory conditions in patients.
Intestinal innate immunity is enacted by neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and innate lymphoid cells and NK cells. Innate immune cells defend against pathogens and excessive entry of intestinal microorganisms while preserving immune tolerance to resident intestinal microbiota, and changes to this equilibrium are linked to intestinal inflammation and IBD.
The inflammatory milieu in IBD is primarily driven by T-helper (Th) cell responses. Th1 and Th17 cells are particularly implicated in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, respectively. The activation of these cells results in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines that perpetuate tissue damage and inflammation.
3.2 The Gut Microbiome
The mainstay of IBD pathogenesis lies in a dysregulated immune response to gut microbiota. In healthy individuals, the immune system maintains a delicate balance that allows for tolerance to commensal microbes while mounting an appropriate response to pathogenic organisms.
IBD is characterized by chronic immune-pathology, disruption of intestinal homeostasis, and altered composition of the gut microbiome (dysbiosis).
3.3 The Gastrointestinal Barrier
Alterations in the microbiota compromise intestinal barrier integrity, allowing antigenic microbial and diet-derived components to translocate into the underlying mucosa.
3.4 Musculoskeletal and Other Extraintestinal Systems
IBD is associated with a range of extraintestinal manifestations. Systemic symptoms are common and include fever, sweats, malaise, and arthralgias. Vitamin D and calcium deficiency resulting from IBD can lead to osteopenia and osteoporosis, especially in patients who received steroids for a long duration.
4. Contributing and Associated Factors
4.1 Genetic Factors
Three characteristics define the etiology of IBD: (1) genetic predisposition; (2) an altered, dysregulated immune response; and (3) an altered response to gut microorganisms.
Twin studies have shown that a genetic predisposition, as opposed to environmental factors, plays a larger role in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis. The first genetic variant conferring susceptibility to ileal CD was located in the nucleotide oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) gene, a gene implicated in recognition of bacterial muramyl dipeptide.
Although many individuals carry IBD-associated risk loci, only a small population develops IBD. Therefore, additional environmental factors and alterations to the interactions between the gut microbiota and mucosal immune system are required for the development of IBD.
4.2 Environmental Factors
Contributing factors include genetic and environmental factors, gut microbiota composition and function, physiological factors, psychological state, and gut immune response.
Identified factors that increase risk of IBD include smoking (CD), urban living (CD and IBD), appendectomy (CD), tonsillectomy (CD), antibiotic exposure (IBD), oral contraceptive use (IBD), consumption of soft drinks (UC), and vitamin D deficiency (IBD). Identified factors that reduce risk of IBD include physical activity (CD), breastfeeding (IBD), bed sharing (CD), tea consumption (UC), high levels of folate (IBD), high levels of vitamin D (CD), and Helicobacter pylori infection (CD, UC, and IBD).
4.3 Smoking
Smoking has been associated consistently with a higher risk of Crohn's disease, while appendectomy and smoking appear to diminish the risk of ulcerative colitis. Important environmental factors include antibiotic consumption during childhood and adolescence and, for Crohn's disease, cigarette smoking.
4.4 The Hygiene Hypothesis
The central principle of the hygiene hypothesis is that abnormal immune responses such as autoimmunity and allergy are the result of improvements in personal hygiene and smaller family sizes that have reduced exposure to microbial stimulation. An expansion of this is the "microflora" hypothesis, which proposes that changes in the gut microbiota due to dietary changes and antibiotic use in western countries have altered microbial-mediated mechanisms of immunological tolerance. Together, these hypotheses suggest that environmental changes can impact the composition of gut microbiota and lead to disease.
Early-life protective factors — such as large family size, household crowding, younger birth rank, drinking unpasteurized milk, living on a farm, and raising pets — are associated with a reduced risk of IBD.
4.5 Psychological Stress
Stress is defined as a state of disharmony or threatened homeostasis. The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the immune system work closely together when the body is confronted with a stressful response. Well-defined or putative environmental risk factors for IBD include cigarette smoking, appendectomy, diet, stress and depression, vitamin D status, as well as hormonal influence.
4.6 Western Diet
The Western diet of today is characterized by a high consumption of refined sugars, refined carbohydrates, sodium, animal proteins, and ultra-processed foods, which contrasts sharply with the traditional diets of previous generations. Growing evidence highlights the detrimental impact of this modern dietary pattern on the gut microbiome. Alterations in the microbiota compromise intestinal barrier integrity, allowing antigenic microbial and diet-derived components to translocate into the underlying mucosa.
The increase in IBD cases among ethnic groups and nationalities where it was previously uncommon is closely linked to the adoption of the Western lifestyle, resulting in alterations in environmental factors including better hygiene standards, lifestyle shifts, changes in nutritional patterns, and modifications in food products.
5. Nutritional Deficiencies in IBD
Malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency are common and clinically significant features of IBD, driven by multiple intersecting mechanisms.
Children with IBD are at increased risk for nutritional inadequacies, resulting from decreased oral intake, restrictive dietary patterns, malabsorption, enhanced nutrient loss, surgery, and medications.
Due to malabsorption secondary to gastrointestinal insufficiency, chronic diarrhea, and the therapy used, there are different nutrient deficiencies, including iron, magnesium, zinc, and selenium, as well as vitamins (vitamin D, folic acid, vitamin B12) in IBD patients.
Prominent scientific societies such as the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) and the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) recommend systematic nutritional monitoring in all patients with IBD, both adults and children, with particular emphasis on periodic assessment of micronutrient status.
5.1 Iron
Iron deficiency and vitamin D deficiency are common in pediatric patients with IBD. Around 75% of children with IBD present with anemia, and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most common type. Many children with IBD suffer from anemia and micronutrient deficiencies at diagnosis, and some fail to recover after one year despite being in clinical remission.
5.2 Vitamin D
Vitamin D supplementation may help to increase bone mineral density in IBD patients and to reduce disease activity. Vitamin D and calcium are important for bone health, and their deficiency can lead to osteopenia and osteoporosis, especially in patients who received steroids for a long duration. The level of vitamin D has been shown to have an impact on the relapse of IBD.
5.3 Zinc
Zinc deficiency, while not common overall, occurs at a higher rate in patients with Crohn's disease than in healthy controls. Zinc deficiency can lead to prolonged diarrhea, delayed wound healing, and increased susceptibility to infections. Zinc should be supplemented in selected cases.
5.4 Folate and Vitamin B12
CD patients are more vulnerable to folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies due to ileocecal location and sulfasalazine administration compared to UC patients. Sulfasalazine, as a folic acid antagonist, may lead to folate deficiency and anemia. IBD patients with ileal resections higher than 20 cm may develop vitamin B12 deficiency that requires parenteral supplementation.
5.5 Selenium and Magnesium
The micronutrients and vitamins most frequently affected in IBD include iron, selenium, zinc, vitamin D, vitamin B12, folic acid, and vitamins A, E, and C. Deficiencies of magnesium and selenium are also documented in IBD patients due to malabsorption secondary to gastrointestinal insufficiency and chronic diarrhea.
6. Nutrients, Herbs, and Natural Ingredients Studied in Relation to IBD
6.1 Curcumin (Curcuma longa)
Traditional Use
Curcumin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolemic, antibacterial, wound-healing, antispasmodic, anticoagulant, antitumor, and hepatoprotective activities. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), the principal bioactive polyphenol of turmeric, has been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine for centuries as an anti-inflammatory agent for gastrointestinal ailments, though specific historical documentation of its use in IBD as a discrete clinical entity is not well documented in the pre-modern literature.
Scientific Evidence
A 2025 meta-analysis of 13 placebo-controlled RCTs on curcumin treatment in IBD was included after screening 362 records. Most trials focused on UC patients and were published post-2010, utilizing oral curcumin with varying dosages and durations. The analysis showed curcumin's significant efficacy in achieving clinical remission and response in UC patients, with heterogeneity observed.
A systematic review of RCTs published in any language before March 2020 that evaluated the effects of curcumin on inflammatory activity and maintenance or remission in IBD patients identified 989 trials initially, of which 11 met eligibility criteria.
Curcumin supplementation has been reported to be effective in reducing the symptoms and the inflammatory indices in IBD patients. Evidence is most consistent for UC maintenance therapy; evidence in Crohn's disease is less robust. Heterogeneity across trials in curcumin formulation, dose, duration, and outcome measurement limits definitive conclusions.
6.2 Probiotics
Traditional and Background Context
Evidence suggests that the intestinal microbiota plays a role in the pathogenesis of IBD, so probiotics have garnered a lot of interest as a potential treatment or prevention for IBD. Fermented foods containing live microorganisms have been used across cultures for millennia, and the concept of beneficial bacteria was formalized in the early twentieth century.
Scientific Evidence
In the treatment of UC with probiotics, only Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 for maintenance treatment of UC in remission, and Bifidobacterium and VSL#3 for induction of remission in patients with mild to moderately active UC have shown strong evidence. Currently, there are no definitive conclusions regarding the effectiveness of probiotics in Crohn's disease.
In an overview of 67 studies (22 systematic reviews and 45 RCTs), the odds ratio for clinical remission in UC and CD was 2.00 (95% CI 1.28–3.11) and 1.61 (95% CI 0.21–12.50), respectively. Subgroup analysis suggested that combining 5-ASA and probiotics may be beneficial for inducing remission in mild-to-moderate UC (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.29–4.28).
The mechanism of probiotic treatment for IBD may be related to reducing oxidative stress, repairing the intestinal barrier, regulating intestinal flora balance, and modulating intestinal immune response. Overall, evidence for probiotics in UC is moderate-to-good for specific strains; evidence in CD remains insufficient to support routine use.
6.3 Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Fish Oil / EPA and DHA)
Traditional and Background Context
The anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 (omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil) have been suggested to be beneficial in chronic inflammatory disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. Consumption of fatty fish has historically been associated with lower rates of inflammatory conditions in populations with high fish intake.
Scientific Evidence
Evidence from two large high-quality studies suggests that omega-3 fatty acids are probably ineffective for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease. No evidence was found that supports the use of omega-3 fatty acids for maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis.
A systematic review and meta-analysis of nine studies found a statistically significant benefit for n-3 in Crohn's disease (relative risk 0.77; 95% CI 0.61–0.98); however, the studies were heterogeneous (I² = 58%), and opinions may vary on whether this is a clinically significant effect.
It is difficult to explain the limited or absent clinical benefit of n-3 in Crohn's disease in view of the strong biologic rationale and the extensive supportive evidence from tissue samples and animal models. The overall evidence for omega-3 supplementation in IBD remains mixed and inconclusive; larger, well-designed trials are needed.
6.4 Boswellia serrata (Indian Frankincense)
Traditional Use
Boswellia serrata is an Indian mastic tree, and the resin collected from its stem has been used in traditional medicine. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine (as "Shallaki") for inflammatory conditions of the joints and gastrointestinal tract for centuries.
Scientific Evidence
Boswellia serrata has significant immunoregulatory properties. Boswellic acids (the active moiety of Boswellia) reduce the levels of TNF-α by suppressing the biosynthesis of leukotrienes via inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase.
In vitro and in vivo, boswellic acid selectively blocked 5-lipoxygenase, indicating an anti-inflammatory effect, and because IBD is associated with increased leukotriene function, the effect of boswellic acid on UC was confirmed.
Despite these mechanistic rationales, clinical evidence for maintenance of remission in CD is negative. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was prematurely terminated due to insufficient discrimination of drug and placebo. Of 82 patients randomized to Boswelan (n=42) or placebo (n=40), 59.9% of the actively treated patients and 55.3% of the placebo group stayed in remission (P=0.85). The trial confirmed good tolerability of the Boswellia serrata extract, but superiority versus placebo in maintenance therapy of remission could not be demonstrated.
A review of trials found that Boswellia serrata gum resin combined with Plantago ovata seeds was as effective as mesalazine in one comparison, though the quality and independence of individual studies in such reviews vary. Evidence overall is preliminary and inconsistent across studies and disease subtypes.
6.5 Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis)
Traditional Use
Aloe vera gel has been used in folk medicine traditions across the Middle East, Africa, and Asia for inflammatory gastrointestinal conditions. Its traditional uses for gut-related complaints predate modern clinical investigation.
Scientific Evidence
Although the exact mechanism of aloe is not fully understood, an in vitro study found that aloe gel reduced secretion of prostaglandin E2 and interleukin-18 (IL-18) in the colon mucosa, suggesting anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial effects. In an in vivo study, aloe extract reduced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels and the expression of IL-1β mRNA, indicative of anti-inflammatory effects.
The Aloe vera gel has been investigated for its therapeutic effects in a double-blind RCT of 44 patients with mild-to-moderate active UC. It induced significantly higher rates of disease remission, improvement, and response with respect to placebo after a 4-week treatment. Evidence is limited to small trials, and further research is needed to establish dose, formulation, and long-term safety.
6.6 Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium)
Traditional Use
Artemisia absinthium (wormwood) has been used in European herbal traditions as a digestive bitter and for intestinal parasites; its application to inflammatory bowel conditions is a more modern extension based on its known anti-inflammatory phytochemical content.
Scientific Evidence
Extracts of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) could reduce TNF-α and other proinflammatory cytokines. An RCT of CD patients treated with a stable daily dose of corticosteroids suggested that the herb Artemisia absinthium, commonly known as wormwood, has corticosteroid-sparing properties. Evidence remains preliminary and is limited to small clinical trials with significant methodological limitations.
6.7 Vitamin D (as a Nutritional Intervention)
Scientific Evidence
Vitamin D supplementation may help to increase bone mineral density in IBD patients and to reduce disease activity. Inflammatory mediators can directly impair the absorption and utilization of specific nutrients, most notably iron and vitamin D. The evidence for vitamin D supplementation in IBD is supportive but not yet definitive; larger, well-powered trials are warranted to determine optimal dosing targets and clinical endpoints.
6.8 Green Tea (Camellia sinensis)
Traditional Use
Green tea has been consumed in East Asian cultures for thousands of years, with its use for digestive and systemic inflammation representing a long-standing tradition in Chinese and Japanese medicine. Its principal bioactive compounds are catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG).
Scientific Evidence
Curcumin supplementation has been reported to be effective in reducing the symptoms and the inflammatory indices in IBD patients. Similar results have been observed for green tea; however, pertinent studies are limited. Evidence for green tea in IBD is at an early, preliminary stage and is largely based on in vitro or animal data, with few rigorous clinical trials in humans.
7. Dietary Patterns and Lifestyle Factors
7.1 The Western Diet as a Risk Factor
The current knowledge recognizes diet as a risk factor for the development of IBD and attributes a substantial pathogenic role to the intestinal dysbiosis inducing an aberrant mucosal immune response in genetically predisposed individuals.
Identified risk factors include smoking, Western diets, ultra-processed foods, and early life antibiotic use, while protective factors include breastfeeding, Mediterranean diets rich in fiber, plant-based foods, and fish, along with an active physical lifestyle.
7.2 The Mediterranean Diet
Key components of the Mediterranean diet (MD) — including microbiota-accessible carbohydrates, omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and antioxidants — have demonstrated promise in enhancing gut microbiota diversity and reducing intestinal inflammation, making it a practical approach for managing IBD.
Results from clinical and translational research on the Mediterranean diet point to its possible meaningful use in managing IBD, and additional studies could have the potential to add further insights to the field.
The effects of the Specific Carbohydrate Diet, low-FODMAP diet, gluten-free diet, anti-inflammatory diet, and Mediterranean diet are under investigation with regard to their impact on microbiota and disease evolution. At present, no clear indications toward a specific diet are available, but assessment of dysbiosis prior to recommendation of a specific diet should become a standard clinical approach to achieve personalized therapy.
7.3 Dietary Fiber and the Microbiome
A reduced intake of fibers leads the gut microbiota to use the muco-glycoproteins produced by the host as a source of nutrients, inducing an alteration of the intestinal mucosa barrier of the colon. This alteration allows the entry of enteric pathogens, causing colitis. A reduction in fiber intake causes an alteration of the gut microbiota that induces a dysfunction of the intestinal barrier.
The Mediterranean, Japanese, Korean, calorie-restricted, high-polyphenol, high-fiber, plant-based, low-fat, and low-protein diets were all associated with increased abundances of either short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)- or lactic acid-producing bacteria or reduced abundance of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria.
7.4 Physical Activity
Physical activity has been identified as a factor that reduces the risk of IBD, specifically Crohn's disease. Evidence from meta-analyses of environmental risk factors places regular physical activity among the modifiable protective factors, though the mechanisms are not fully elucidated.
7.5 Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding has been identified as a factor that reduces the risk of IBD. Infancy is a critical period for establishing the gut microbiome, which is important for the immunological and metabolic development of an individual's future health. Early nutritional exposures, including breastfeeding, may shape microbiota composition in ways that influence long-term immune programming relevant to IBD risk.
7.6 Antibiotic Exposure
Important environmental factors include antibiotic consumption during childhood and adolescence and, for Crohn's disease, cigarette smoking. The microflora hypothesis proposes that changes in the gut microbiota due to dietary changes and antibiotic use in western countries have altered microbial-mediated mechanisms of immunological tolerance.
7.7 Stress and the Gut-Brain Axis
Contributing factors to IBD include genetic and environmental factors, gut microbiota composition and function, physiological factors, psychological state, and gut immune response. Interdependences are evident across psychological and biological factors and IBD disease activity. Environmental factors such as diet, infections, and stress can exacerbate immune dysregulation, leading to an inappropriate inflammatory response.
8. Evidence Gaps and Research Limitations
Across all natural and nutritional interventions studied in IBD, several consistent limitations apply. Although the number of relevant clinical studies is relatively small, it can be assumed that the efficacy of herbal therapies in IBD is promising. However, heterogeneity in trial design, patient populations, disease subtypes (UC vs. CD), disease activity at enrollment, dosing, formulation, and duration of treatment makes cross-study comparisons difficult.
Studying the relationship between environmental factors and IBD may provide the missing link to increasing understanding of the etiology and increased incidence of IBD. However, the impact of modifying specific environmental factors on causation and established disease remain poorly studied, with limited high-quality data from interventional studies to guide clinical practice.
At present, no clear indications toward a specific diet are available, but the assessment of dysbiosis prior to the recommendation of a specific diet should become a standard clinical approach in order to achieve personalized therapy.
References
- PMC: Inflammatory bowel disease: clinical aspects and treatments (PMC4106026)
- PMC: Inflammatory Bowel Disease: An Overview of Immune Mechanisms and Biological Treatments (PMC4539174)
- PMC: Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Innate Immune System (PMC9863490)
- PMC: Understanding Crohn's Disease: Immunity, Genes and Microbes (PMC5374983)
- PMC: A Review of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Model of Microbial, Immune and Neuropsychological Integration (PMC8386758)
- PMC: Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (PMC4782273)
- PMC: Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review (PMC4945988)
- PMC: Environmental Risk Factors for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Review (PMC4304948)
- PMC: Environmental risk factors of inflammatory bowel disease: toward a strategy of preventative health (PMC12010164)
- PubMed: Environmental Risk Factors for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: An Umbrella Review of Meta-analyses
- MDPI Biomedicines: Novel Insights into the Pathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (2025)
- PMC: Nutritional Status and Its Detection in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (PMC10143611)
- PubMed: A Systematic Review of Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease
- PMC: Micronutrient Deficiencies and Anemia in Children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (PMC7830649)
- PMC: Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pediatric IBD: How Often, Why, and What to Do? (PMC12073209)
- PubMed: The role of dietary supplements in inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review
- PMC: Curcumin for the clinical treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis (PMC11973083)
- PMC: The Use of Curcumin as a Complementary Therapy in Ulcerative Colitis: A Systematic Review (PMC7468803)
- PMC: Probiotics for inflammatory bowel disease: Is there sufficient evidence? (PMC10998680)
- PMC: Efficacy and safety of probiotics in IBD: An overview of systematic reviews and updated meta-analysis (PMC11497663)
- PMC: Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease — Cochrane Review (PMC8988157)
- PubMed: Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis — Cochrane Review
- Cochrane Library: Omega 3 fatty acids for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease (Lev-Tzion et al., 2014)
- PMC: Herbal and plant therapy in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (PMC4367210)
- PMC: Natural Product-Derived Drugs for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (PMC4204705)
- PMC: Boswellia Serrata, A Potential Antiinflammatory Agent: An Overview (PMC3309643)
- PubMed: Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of Boswellia serrata in maintaining remission of Crohn's disease
- PMC: Probiotics, fibre and herbal medicinal products for functional and inflammatory bowel disorders (PMC5429330)
- PMC: Nutrition, IBD and Gut Microbiota: A Review (PMC7230231)
- PMC: From Evidence to Practice: A Narrative Framework for Integrating the Mediterranean Diet into IBD Management (PMC11821149)
- PMC: Influence of Mediterranean Diet on Human Gut Microbiota (PMC7822000)
- Korean Journal of Internal Medicine: The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: exploring the impacts of environmental factors
Go back