Maqui Berry (Aristotelia chilensis): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description
Botanical name: Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz, belonging to the family Elaeocarpaceae, is a berry recognized as having one of the highest antioxidant activities known, and which is exploited from the wild as raw material for nutraceutical products. The plant is commonly called maqui berry, and in some sources is referred to as the Chilean wineberry or Chilean blackberry.
Maqui is an evergreen shrub or small tree with a height of up to 5 m. It is believed to originate from an area ranging from the Andean region of Argentina to the temperate forests of Central and South Chile. In these regions, in December and January, maqui produces intensely violet to blackish colored berries of about 5 mm in diameter containing one to eight angular seeds.
Maquiberry is a dioecious species that grows naturally as an evergreen bush or tree from Limarí (30°S latitude, Coquimbo Region) to Aysén (45°S latitude). In Chile, maqui is distributed from the Coquimbo region to the Aysén region.
Common Forms and Preparations
The edible berry has been used to produce juice, pulp, jam, and liqueur as well as, due to its high tinctorial strength, to enhance color of pale red wines. For certain countries like Japan, South Korea, Italy, and the United States, the fruit is not distributed as a fresh product but instead dried or frozen for industrial use.
Commercially, maqui is most commonly encountered in the following forms: freeze-dried whole berry powder, standardized dry extracts (including proprietary extracts such as Delphinol® and MaquiBright®), encapsulated supplements, and as a functional ingredient in beverages and foods. The MaquiBright® extract is standardized to comprise not less than 35% of total anthocyanins and at least 25% of delphinidins.
Regarding regulatory status in Europe, in the EU novel foods catalogue, maqui berries are considered not novel in food supplements in the EU; however, they are considered novel when used in foods.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Maqui is a safe food that has been consumed by the Mapuche people for hundreds of years, considered as a healthy food capable of curing symptoms of diseases. Maqui berry grows in the forests of southern Chile, and the Mapuche, the indigenous people of this region, have consumed this berry for centuries due to its many health benefits.
The Mapuche people, an indigenous tribe with origins in the Central Valley of Chile, would rely on the therapeutic purposes of the plant's leaves to create herbal tea in order to treat diarrhea, acute tonsillitis, and ulcers. In the past, the healers (machis) of the Mapuche culture used its crushed leaves to heal wounds, and its leaves were used in infusions that served to relieve sore throats or mouth ulcers.
As explained by the naturalist Claudio Gay in his 1844 publication, the Mapuche population would eat the berries both fresh and as part of medicinal beverages. To this day, the Mapuche use the fruit to prepare the chicha de maqui, a fermented beverage, exploiting the intense colour of the berries. The berries are also used to create fabric dyes, and the leaves can be exploited for their medicinal properties, above all to treat burns and wounds, but can also be eaten as lettuce when tender.
In 1496 the Chilean chronicler Alonso de Ovalle reported that the leaves of the maqui tree were used to cure burns; in 1889 the Chilean doctor Adolfo Murillo spoke about the anti-inflammatory power of the juice of this fruit and its power to relieve throat conditions. In the 19th century, the historian and politician Vicuña Mackenna reported that the Mapuche aborigines used maqui to cure diarrhea, a practice imitated by the citizens of the country's capital in those same years.
The maqui berries are consumed by the Mapuche, the indigenous people of southern Chile, as a fermented beverage for stamina and energy. As an incredibly important part of Mapuche native culture, maqui is a sacred plant that symbolizes good intention.
Today the maqui is being increasingly commercialized to produce dietary supplements, increasing its popularity, which not only weakens ecosystems and its availability in the forests, but also leads to challenges for farming communities and the Mapuche, making it extremely difficult for them to collect the fruit in traditional ways.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Anthocyanins
Maqui berry is characterized by presenting a high concentration of (poly)phenols, with anthocyanins (cyanidin and delphinidin) accounting for over 85% of the total. Eight pigments corresponding to the 3-glucosides, 3,5-diglucosides, 3-sambubiosides and 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides of delphinidin and cyanidin have been identified, the principal anthocyanin being delphinidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside (34% of total anthocyanins).
The average total anthocyanin content is 137.6 ± 0.4 mg/100 g of fresh fruit (211.9 ± 0.6 mg/100 g of dry fruit). The relatively high anthocyanin content and the important presence of polar polyglycosylated derivatives makes the fruits of A. chilensis an interesting source of anthocyanin extracts for food and pharmaceutical uses.
Anthocyanins in Chilean maqui berry clones were isolated and characterized by HPLC–DAD–ESI/MS and 2D–NMR spectroscopy, and 2D–NMR spectroscopic data unambiguously showed that the major maqui anthocyanins were delphinidin 3-O-(2″-O-β-xylopyranosyl-β-glucopyranoside)-5-O-β-glucopyranoside and delphinidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside-5-O-β-glucopyranoside.
The anthocyanin composition of maqui powder is characterized by 8 anthocyanins (total concentration of approximately 16.59 mg/g maqui powder), with the most abundant being delphinidin derivatives (approximately 83%), followed by cyanidin ones.
3.2 Other Phenolic Compounds
A wide variety of bioactive compounds have been reported in A. chilensis, including caffeic and gallic acids, quercetin, rutin, myricetin, catechin, epicatechin, and anthocyanins mainly derived from delphinidin, malvidin, petunidin, cyanidin, and peonidin.
Chemical characterization has allowed identification of several compounds with known pharmacological potential, including caffeic acid, quercetin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and rutin, among others.
3.3 Mechanisms of Action
The observed clinical effects of maqui berry are biologically plausible and consistent with the known pharmacological properties, particularly its high contents of anthocyanins and delphinidins. These compounds are recognized for their potent antioxidant capacity, their ability to modulate inflammatory pathways, and their potential effects on glucose transport mechanisms.
SGLT1 inhibition and glucose metabolism: The maqui berry extract affects absorption of glucose, which was attributed by other groups to SGLT1-inhibition. An inhibition of Na⁺-dependent glucose transport by delphinidin, the principal polyphenol to which Delphinol® is standardized, has been identified.
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways: The fundamental mechanisms by which this species exerts effects have been mainly related to the inhibition of lipid peroxidation, decrease in cholesterol and blood glucose levels, as well as a decrease in oxidative stress.
Antiplatelet activity: Although studies on antiplatelet activity in this fruit are recent, its rich chemical composition clearly shows the presence of chemical compounds (anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolic acids) with high antiplatelet potential, related to inhibition of thromboxane, thrombin, ADP, and GPVI receptors, or through the pathways by which these receptors stimulate platelet aggregation.
Lacrimal gland antioxidant effects: Earlier pre-clinical investigations concluded that the etiology of dry eyes encompasses oxidative stress burden to lachrymal glands and that antioxidant maqui berry extract helps restore glandular activity.
4. Scientific Evidence by Health Area
4.1 Ocular Health — Dry Eye Disease
The ocular domain represents the most rigorously studied and consistently supported area of maqui berry research in humans.
Systematic review (2025): A systematic review synthesized and critically appraised human trials evaluating oral maqui supplementation in adults, following PRISMA 2020 and a PROSPERO-registered protocol, assessing five databases, with twelve clinical trials published between 2014 and 2023 included. The most consistent evidence was observed in the ocular domain, where maqui supplementation, particularly with standardized extracts such as MaquiBright®, demonstrated reproducible improvements in tear production and dry eye symptoms in both pilot and placebo-controlled trials.
Pilot trial (Hitoe & Tanaka, 2014; published in Minerva Cardioangioligica): In this pilot trial, 13 healthy volunteers with moderately dry eyes were enrolled using the Schirmer test and quality-of-life questionnaire. Study participants were assigned to one of two groups, receiving MaquiBright™ at a daily dosage of either 30 mg (N=7) or 60 mg (N=6) over a period of 60 days. Both groups presented with significantly (P<0.05) improved tear fluid volume already after 30 days of treatment. Daily supplementation with 30 mg MaquiBright™ was effective, but the dosage of 60 mg significantly increased tear fluid volume at all investigative time points and decreased dry eye symptoms to almost a quarter from initial values after two months treatment. This was an open-label, non-randomized pilot study with a very small sample size, limiting its generalizability.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Yamashita et al., 2019; J Tradit Complement Med): This study investigated the effects of MaquiBright® on improving eye dryness and fatigue in Japanese subjects (aged 30–60 years) experiencing eye dryness, eye fatigue, and ≥4 hours of visual display terminal (VDT) work daily. Seventy-four participants were equally but randomly assigned to either a MaquiBright® (MB) or a placebo group, with each participant consuming one capsule daily for 4 weeks. Eye dryness and fatigue were measured using the Schirmer's test, tear break-up time (BUT) test, pupillary response, and flicker test before intake and 4 weeks after intake, with subjective symptoms assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) method and the Dry Eye–related Quality of Life Score (DEQS) questionnaire. Active capsules contained 120 mg of dextrin and 60 mg of MaquiBright®, containing 21 mg of total anthocyanins, 15 mg of total delphinidins, and 4 mg delphinidin-3,5-O-diglucoside. Both objective and subjective signs of dry eyes were significantly improved compared to placebo.
Randomized controlled trial in dry eye disease (Kundu et al., 2023; Indian J Ophthalmol): This study investigated the effects of maqui-berry extract (MBE) in improving signs and symptoms of dry eye disease (DED) along with ocular surface inflammation. Twenty patients were randomly assigned to a MBE or a placebo group. DED parameters including Schirmer's test 1 (ST1), tear film break-up time (TBUT), ocular surface disease index (OSDI), and corneal staining were assessed before treatment and 2 months post-treatment. Improved symptoms of dry eye and reduction in inflammatory markers of eyes were seen in the maqui group compared to placebo.
Evidence assessment: The evidence for maqui berry's benefit in dry eye disease is the strongest across its studied health areas, supported by multiple studies including at least one adequately powered randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Limitations include geographically narrow populations (primarily Japanese) and short follow-up durations.
4.2 Glycemic and Metabolic Effects
Acute studies consistently showed reduced postprandial glucose and modulation of insulin response, whereas chronic interventions showed modest and inconsistent effects on HbA1c, lipid profile, and other cardiometabolic markers.
Acute crossover study (Alvarado et al., 2016; BioMed Res Int): Postprandial blood glucose and insulin were investigated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over fashion in ten volunteers with moderate glucose intolerance. Volunteers underwent four consecutive OGTTs with at least one-week washout periods, in which different doses of Delphinol were administered one hour before glucose intake. Delphinol significantly and dose-dependently lowered basal glycemia and insulinemia. Lower doses delayed postprandial glycemic and insulinemic peaks, while higher doses reversed this tendency. Glycemia peaks were dose-dependently lowered.
Three-month clinical trial in prediabetes (Alvarado et al., 2016; Panminerva Med): A three-month trial investigated the effects of Delphinol® in 31 subjects presenting with just-diagnosed, moderate glucose intolerance, measuring HbA1c, glucose tolerance, and lipid profile in monthly intervals. Average levels of glycosylated hemoglobin decreased from an initial 5.65±0.09% (SE) to 5.35±0.08% (SE) (P=0.003) after three months of daily supplementation with 180 mg Delphinol® in the morning. Fasting insulin and glucose were non-significantly lowered. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test performed in monthly intervals did not result in significant alterations compared to baseline. Blood lipid measurements showed significant reduction of LDL after three months (P=0.001), VLDL decreased after one month (P=0.019). VLDL values subsequently rose again, showing no statistical difference with the starting condition. HDL increased significantly over baseline during the entire treatment period. Total cholesterol and triglycerides did not present with significant changes.
Postprandial blood glucose levels were lowered with all tested doses of 60, 120, and 180 mg Delphinol® in a dose-dependent manner. The blood glucose peaks shifted from 30 minutes under placebo to 60 minutes after pure glucose intake with Delphinol®.
Evidence assessment: Human evidence for acute glycemic effects of standardized maqui berry extract (particularly Delphinol®) is mechanistically coherent and consistent across multiple studies in prediabetic populations. However, chronic effects on HbA1c are modest and have not been confirmed in large, independent, adequately powered trials. The studies reviewed used proprietary extracts, so results may not generalize to all commercial preparations.
4.3 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Biomarkers
Favorable changes were reported for oxidative stress biomarkers and autonomic parameters, although these findings were mainly based on surrogate endpoints.
A randomized clinical trial evaluated the efficacy of an anthocyanin-maqui berry extract (Delphinol®) on oxidative stress biomarkers (Davinelli et al., 2015; J Am Coll Nutr). Reductions in oxidized LDL-C and urinary F2-isoprostanes compared to baseline were reported after consumption of 150 mg maqui berry extract. Data are not available to calculate the magnitude of effect, and both studies suggest protective implications from berry consumption on oxidative stress, but the strength of the relationship cannot be determined based on the available data.
Evidence assessment: Preliminary. Surrogate biomarker outcomes in small trials. Independent replication in larger cohorts is needed.
4.4 Cardiovascular Health
A comprehensive literature review revealed that maqui is a promising cardiovascular target since extracts from this berry have direct effects on the reduction in cardiovascular risk factors (glucose index, obesity, diabetes, among others).
In terms of antiplatelet activity, the few studies about antiplatelet activity in maqui are recent. The aggregation and platelet secretion induced by ADP and collagen were significantly inhibited by leaf and immature fruit extracts of the varieties "Luna Nueva" and "Morena". These extracts also reduced oxidative stress, an effect that might be related to the high content of antioxidant compounds.
At the cellular level, maqui berry has received increasing attention due to a variety of bioactivities including reduction of inflammation, control of blood glucose, and improvement of heart health including the aortic endothelium, but corroborative research is needed. One study investigated the effects of aqueous maqui berry extract on nitric oxide (NO) production and oxidative stress (ROS) generation in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC) alone or in a hyperglycemic environment with or without insulin.
Evidence assessment: Largely preclinical (cell culture and animal). The antiplatelet data are recent and limited to ex vivo models. No large, prospective human cardiovascular endpoint trials have been conducted.
4.5 Metabolic Syndrome
Reports indicate that maqui berry consumption has a beneficial effect on chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, and diabetes in preclinical models. In vivo and in silico studies have been performed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms implied in improving the metabolic parameters of metabolic syndrome. Fourteen-day administration of maqui berry reduced weight gain, blood fasting glucose, total blood cholesterol, triacylglycerides, insulin resistance, and blood pressure impairment in a diet-induced metabolic syndrome model in male and female rats. Additionally, administration of maqui berry improved MDA concentration, SOD activity, and the formation of carbonyls in the serum of rats subjected to the diet-induced MetS model.
Evidence assessment: Animal model data only. No human trials for metabolic syndrome as a primary outcome have been published.
4.6 Skin Health
Standardized maqui berry extract has been reported to have ameliorative effects against dry eyes and visible light-induced photoreceptor cell damage in preclinical work. The influence of maqui berry extract on human skin was evaluated in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study with Delphinol®, standardized for anthocyanins (especially delphinidins and cyanidins), in healthy Japanese female subjects. This study (Shimoda et al., 2020) reported improvements in skin brightness and redness. Evidence is preliminary, based on a single small pilot study in a specific population.
4.7 Anti-Inflammatory and Antinociceptive Effects
Maqui berry is characterized by presenting a high concentration of (poly)phenols, with anthocyanins (cyanidin and delphinidin) accounting for over 85% of the total. These colored flavonoids have demonstrated potential neurological activity, but the evidence of their antinociceptive properties is scarce. In order to cover this gap, different doses of maqui berry powder using enteral and parenteral routes were compared at central and peripheral levels using a nociceptive pain model (formalin test) in mice. A dose-antinociceptive response was confirmed using both routes of administration and in both neurogenic and inflammatory phases of the formalin test, without gastric damage. This evidence is preclinical (animal) only.
For inflammatory bowel disease, in vitro studies of epithelial cells showed that maqui extract has a powerful antioxidant strength exhibiting a dose-dependent behavior. When LPS-activated macrophages were used, noncytotoxic effects were observed. The maqui extract along with 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) showed a synergistic effect. All compiled data pointed to the use of this extract as a potential nutraceutical agent for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This evidence is in vitro only.
5. Dosage Forms and Study-Reported Dosages
The following dosages reflect those reported in published clinical studies only:
- Dry eye (pilot trial): Study participants received MaquiBright™ at daily dosages of either 30 mg (N=7) or 60 mg (N=6) over a period of 60 days.
- Dry eye (RCT): Seventy-four participants were equally but randomly assigned to either a MaquiBright® (MB) or placebo group, with each participant consuming one capsule of MaquiBright® 60 mg or placebo daily for 4 weeks.
- Glucose/prediabetes (acute OGTT study): Volunteers underwent four consecutive OGTTs, in which different doses of Delphinol® were administered one hour before glucose intake. Postprandial blood glucose levels were lowered with all tested doses of 60, 120, and 180 mg Delphinol®.
- Glucose/prediabetes (3-month trial): A daily supplementation with 180 mg Delphinol® in the morning was administered over three months.
- Oxidative stress (RCT): 150 mg maqui berry extract was used in one studied clinical trial.
- Bioavailability study: Bioavailability of Delphinol® was investigated after a single-dose supplementation in humans. Four capsules (1000 mg Delphinol®) were administered.
6. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics
A bioavailability study of proprietary standardized maqui berry extract Delphinol® was investigated based on two selected anthocyanins (delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside) and two breakdown products (protocatechuic acid and gallic acid) after a single-dose supplementation in humans. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated from individual concentration–time curves. In all 12 subjects, a significant increase was noted in plasma values after intake. Maximum concentration of delphinidin-3-O-glucoside was observed after 1.0 ± 0.3 h and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside after 2.0 ± 1.1 h. Within 8 hours, concentrations nearly returned to baseline levels, confirming fast uptake and metabolism.
The phenolic acids gallic acid and protocatechuic acid were observed as breakdown products of anthocyanins. Different causes may contribute to the apparent low bioavailability, including cellular uptake in the intestine, first pass metabolism, low absorption rate, and limited stability during passage through the intestinal tract.
Existing literature shows that certain dietary components can modify anthocyanin absorption. Furthermore, the presence of other flavonoids could possibly interfere with the absorption of anthocyanins.
Regarding co-ingested sweeteners, sucralose provided the greatest absorption value in humans for most of the maqui berry metabolites, followed by stevia and with a minor influence of sucrose, after the ingestion of a maqui–citrus-based beverage supplemented with these sweeteners.
7. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Maqui Berry
- Ocular system: Lacrimal gland function, tear film production, dry eye disease markers (Schirmer test, TBUT, OSDI), ocular surface inflammation biomarkers (IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, MMP9).
- Metabolic/endocrine system: Postprandial glucose and insulin regulation, HbA1c, lipid profile (LDL, HDL, VLDL), SGLT1-mediated intestinal glucose absorption.
- Cardiovascular system: Platelet aggregation, lipid peroxidation, oxidized LDL, endothelial nitric oxide production.
- Antioxidant/redox system: Plasma antioxidant capacity, urinary F2-isoprostanes, reactive oxygen species (ROS), SOD activity, MDA levels.
- Gastrointestinal/inflammatory system: In vitro models for IBD, synergistic effects with 5-ASA on LPS-activated macrophages.
- Integumentary system (skin): Skin brightness, redness, and oxidative stress markers (pilot-level evidence).
8. Safety Considerations and Interactions
8.1 Tolerability in Clinical Studies
In the three-month prediabetes trial, Delphinol® was well tolerated and no adverse effects occurred. In the bioavailability study, MBE was well tolerated and no adverse events were reported.
Safety assessments for the maqui berry extract are available, clearly demonstrating the safe use of MBE in vitro and in vivo.
8.2 Interaction with Antidiabetic Medications
Maqui may interact with antidiabetic drugs at a moderate level. Maqui might lower blood sugar levels. Diabetes medications are also used to lower blood sugar. Taking maqui along with diabetes medications might cause blood sugar to be too low.
8.3 Regulatory and Safety Assessment Status
Under EU regulations, maqui berries are classified as novel foods and must meet EFSA standards for safety assessment, particularly in powdered or extract form. EFSA's safety assessment for maqui berry as a novel food ingredient has not resulted in a conclusive positive opinion, as it was not possible to conclude on the safety of use.
8.4 Gastric Safety in Preclinical Studies
Gastric damage, as a possible adverse effect produced by anti-inflammatory analgesic drugs, was not observed at any dose or route of administration tested of the A. chilensis powder, in comparison to a slightly but positive response in a reference drug like indomethacin.
8.5 Pregnancy, Lactation, and Special Populations
There is not enough information to know if maqui is safe during pregnancy and breast-feeding, and it is best to stay on the safe side and avoid use in these populations. No published clinical data are available in pediatric populations.
8.6 Variability in Product Composition
Product standardization is a practical safety and efficacy consideration. Drying, cooling, or freezing fruit maintains the polyphenol and anthocyanin contents. Several compounds with known pharmacological potential have been identified, and the varieties differ in the composition and concentration of phenolic compounds, supporting the fact that extracts from different genotypes and parts of the tree, including immature versus mature fruit, vary in their activities.
9. Overall Evidence Summary
Aristotelia chilensis (maqui berry) is a Chilean native fruit rich in anthocyanins with potential antioxidant, glycemic, cardiometabolic, and ocular benefits, but its clinical efficacy remains unclear. The strongest human clinical evidence exists for dry eye disease, where multiple trials, including at least one randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study, have demonstrated reproducible benefit with standardized extracts at doses of 30–60 mg/day. Acute glycemic effects in prediabetic subjects are supported by mechanistic data (SGLT1 inhibition) and several clinical studies; chronic effects on HbA1c and lipid profiles are more modest and require larger independent confirmation. Cardiovascular, anti-inflammatory, and skin health effects remain preliminary and are principally supported by in vitro and animal data, or very small pilot trials. No long-term safety data from large human cohorts are currently available.
References
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