Green-lipped mussel

Green-Lipped Mussel (Perna canaliculus)

1. Identity: Scientific Classification, Names, and Natural Source

The green-lipped mussel bears the scientific name Perna canaliculus and is known commercially under several names, including New Zealand green-lipped mussel, with notable proprietary preparations including Lyprinol (a stabilized lipid extract) and Seatone (a freeze-dried preparation). The species is also referred to as the greenshell mussel, kūtai mussel, and kuku mussel, and the trademarked designation GREENSHELL™ is used specifically for aquaculture-grown specimens.

The species Perna canaliculus is a member of the Bivalvia class from the Mollusca phylum within the Mytilidae family. There are two green mussel species of commercial interest: P. canaliculus is found in the temperate waters of New Zealand, whereas Perna viridis occurs widely throughout the Indo-Pacific region, which includes Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

The New Zealand green-lipped mussel is endemic to the ocean surrounding New Zealand's mainland and is characterized by dark brown/green shells with green-lipped edges. This mussel is predominantly found in the sheltered inlets and bays of New Zealand's North and South Islands, particularly flourishing in the Marlborough Sounds, Hauraki Gulf, and around Stewart Island. It is grown for aquaculture only in New Zealand, where it is trademarked as the Greenshell™ mussel.

Greenshell™ mussels are a source of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and are considered a sustainable source of these compounds, as they require no dietary inputs, gaining all of their oil by filter-feeding microorganisms from seawater.

Although the mussels can be harvested throughout the year, the time of year of harvesting may affect the identity, ratios, and concentrations of active ingredients found in the harvested mussels. Other factors that may affect active ingredient concentrations include the strain of mussel harvested, location, water temperature, harvest methods, and processing methods.

Common Forms and Preparations

Green-lipped mussels are available in several forms. Consumers can find them fresh or frozen as whole mussels for culinary use. For health-supporting compounds, the mussels are processed into supplement forms such as powders, capsules, and oil extracts.

• Freeze-dried whole mussel powder: Obtained by freeze-drying and grinding the mussels, this form contains all the nutrients, including proteins and glycosaminoglycans. However, the fatty acid concentration is relatively low, so larger quantities (in grams) are often required for a noticeable effect.
• Stabilized lipid extract (oil): Lyprinol® is a marine lipid extract obtained by supercritical extraction of the total lipids from stabilized, freeze-dried mussel flesh. It contains a number of lipid classes including sterol esters, triglycerides, free fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated), sterols, and polar lipids.
• PCSO-524® (Lyprinol®/Omega XL®): PCSO-524™ is a mixture of the five main lipid classes including sterol esters, triglycerides, free fatty acids, sterols, and polar lipids, and contains approximately 13% EPA, 21% DHA, 30% cholesterol, and up to 91 fatty acid components.

The active ingredients in green-lipped mussels are extremely sensitive to heat and oxygen. Compared to lipid preparations, freeze-dried preparations contain substantially more of the protein fraction responsible for allergic reactions.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Green-lipped mussels have been on the menu for coastal-dwelling Māori for centuries, as evidenced by archaeological digs showing shells buried in middens created by the earliest New Zealanders. Known as kūtai in Māori, these mussels have been harvested and consumed for generations, featuring prominently in Māori cuisine and social gatherings. The mussel is also referred to as kuku in some Māori dialects.

Ancient Māori cooked these shellfish in umus (earth ovens) or with hot stones, dried them to preserve them, or simply ate them raw. The Māori also valued the mussel for its connection to the sea, which is central to their cosmology and spiritual beliefs.

Shellfish supplements have been used as traditional remedies for arthritis, in particular by the indigenous Māori people of New Zealand. It was noted that the tribes who had the highest consumption of raw mussel meat had the lowest incidence of arthritis and other inflammatory disorders.

Interest in the mussel's potential health benefits began in the early 1970s, stemming from the observation that Māori people had a lower incidence of arthritis compared to those living inland. Researchers in the 1960s and 1970s noted that coastal Māori populations — whose traditional diet included green-lipped mussels as a regular component — appeared to have lower rates of certain joint complaints than inland Māori communities who did not consume them. While observational data of this kind cannot establish causation, it provided the starting point for laboratory and clinical research into the mussel's bioactive constituents.

Since their launch in 1976, effects of nutritional green-lipped mussel supplement products on osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and cancer have been studied in various clinical trials and discussed in numerous review papers.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Green-lipped mussel extract has an unusually comprehensive nutritional profile for a single natural ingredient. Its main constituent groups include: omega-3 fatty acids — including EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), along with furan fatty acids unique to marine shellfish that are the subject of ongoing research; and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) — including glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate, which are natural components of articular cartilage and synovial fluid in the human body.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

The mussels are a rich source of anti-inflammatory omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In addition to the well-known fatty acids EPA and DHA, green-lipped mussel contains eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA), a rare omega-3 fatty acid. The primary mechanism behind green-lipped mussel's joint benefits is thought to be ETA, which is a rare omega-3 fatty acid found in meaningful quantities in green-lipped mussel but not in standard fish oil or plant-based omega-3 sources.

Furan Fatty Acids (F-Acids)

Furan fatty acids are unstable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant components detected in the greenshell mussel in minor amounts. In a study by Wakimoto and co-authors employing a semisynthetic route from furan dicarboxylic acid, furan fatty acid ethyl esters showed more potent anti-inflammatory effects than EPA in a rat model of adjuvant-induced arthritis.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

Beyond fatty acids, the mussel provides glycosaminoglycans like chondroitin sulfate, a component of connective tissues. These compounds support cartilage and connective tissues, aiding in combating degeneration.

Additional Constituents

The green-lipped mussel also contains a range of vitamins, including B vitamins, vitamin C, and vitamin E, alongside minerals such as zinc, iron, and selenium. Green-lipped mussels also contain other fat components that support the body's ability to fight inflammation, such as furan fatty acids (F-acids) and phytosterols, as well as antioxidant compounds such as carotenoids and flavonoids that support the body's ability to protect itself against free radical damage.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Inhibition of COX and LOX Pathways

The underlying mechanisms explaining the anti-inflammatory effects of green-lipped mussel are rooted in the anti-inflammatory activity of bioactive lipids in mussels including EPA and DHA. These lipids mediate the inflammatory response by inhibiting both the cyclo-oxygenase (COX) and lipo-oxygenase (LOX) cascades of arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism, which results in a decrease in the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators.

Purified PUFA extracts from P. canaliculus have been shown to potently inhibit COX-1 and COX-2. Total lipid extracts of P. canaliculus and Mytilus edulis moderately inhibited ovine COX-1 and COX-2 pure enzymes in vitro. Lyprinol® also exhibited strong inhibition of both COX isoforms. In contrast, fish oil was not as anti-COX active as Lyprinol.

Lyprinol® has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of the LOX pathways, in particular the 5- and 12-LOX enzymes, and has been found to induce apoptosis in cultured PC-3 cell lines.

Cytokine Modulation

PCSO-524™ has been shown to reduce the pro-inflammatory LTB4 in human monocytes, inhibit the formation of 5-HETE (products from the lipoxygenase pathway), attenuate the formation of LTB4 and 5-HETE from human neutrophils, directly inhibit the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, and inhibit IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ synthesis.

In animal models, T- and B-cell immune responses were reduced by GLM, as were the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and NF-κB.

Chondroprotection

In animal studies, GLM ameliorated pain and cartilage destruction in monosodium iodoacetate-induced osteoarthritis. The chondroprotective effects of GLM implicated inhibition of oxidative damage and suppression of catabolic factors involved in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis cartilage damage.

Prebiotic / Gut Microbiome Effects

Greenshell mussel has been extensively studied for its anti-inflammatory compounds, and a novel potential prebiotic effect has been documented in animal and human clinical trials. Experimental study of rats fed with a high-fat/high-sugar diet demonstrated that adding whole GSM powder increased the caecum weight and caecal contents, indicating enhancement in colonisation of gut microbes. The production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as propionic acid was significantly reduced in rats on the high-fat diet, but increased when GSM powder was added.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Osteoarthritis (OA)

Osteoarthritis is the most extensively studied application of green-lipped mussel supplements. Intervention studies using New Zealand greenshell mussel extract in osteoarthritis patients have shown effective pain relief. A systematic review summarizing this evidence involved a literature search of EMBASE, MEDLINE, and Scopus for clinical trials published up to March 2020, with inclusion criteria being trials measuring the effect of supplementation of whole or lipid extract from greenshell mussel on pain and mobility outcomes in OA patients.

A total of nine clinical trials were included in the systematic review, from which five studies were considered appropriate for inclusion in a forest plot. Pooled results showed that greenshell mussel extracts (lipid extract or whole powder) provide moderate and clinically significant treatment effects on a visual analogue scale (VAS) pain score (effect size: −0.46; 95% CI −0.82 to −0.10).

The overall analysis showed that greenshell mussel provided moderate and clinically meaningful treatment effects on OA pain. However, the current evidence is limited by the number and quality of studies, and further larger and high-quality studies are needed.

One important individual study compared different formulations directly: a double-blind 3-month parallel comparison assessed the efficacy of a lipid extract of Perna canaliculus in patients with rheumatoid and osteoarthritis, comparing it with green-lipped mussel powder. Interventions were stabilized green-lipped mussel powder at 1150 mg/day and the derived lipid extract at 210 mg/day. Results showed that 76% of rheumatoid and 70% of osteoarthritic patients benefited, and articular index, limbering-up time, and functional index improved significantly by three months. The two preparations appeared equally efficacious.

Not all trials have been positive. In the most recent RCT reported by Stebbings (2017), 80 patients with moderate-to-severe OA were randomly provided with a novel GSM lipid extract enriched in N-acylethanolamine and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (600 mg/day) versus corn oil as placebo over 12 weeks. In contrast to previous findings, the results showed no statistically significant difference between the intervention and placebo groups in pain or quality of life outcomes.

Evidence strength summary (OA): Reports of clinical studies using freeze-dried mussel powder show mixed outcome measures and are not conclusive, with only two of five randomized controlled trials attesting benefits for rheumatoid and osteoarthritis patients. Animal studies have likewise yielded mixed findings. The 2021 systematic review (Agyemang et al., PMC) suggests moderate, clinically meaningful effects on pain, but emphasizes the need for larger and higher-quality trials.

5.2 Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

The clinical evidence does not support the use of green-lipped mussel for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Early systematic reviews identified major methodological limitations in available trials. In one key study, the number of capsules differed between treatments (five versus three capsules), making the double-blind aspect questionable. The lack of a placebo arm further questioned the validity of these results.

More recent preclinical work has been encouraging: GLM has chondro-modulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. In a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model, GLM administered orally reduced arthritis severity and the histologic score compared to vehicle. The expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-17) was decreased in the ankle joints of GLM-treated CIA mice. These results are from animal models only and cannot be directly extrapolated to clinical use in humans.

Evidence strength summary (RA): Human clinical evidence for RA is weak and inconsistent. Animal/preclinical data show mechanistic plausibility, but adequately powered, rigorously blinded human RCTs are lacking.

5.3 Asthma and Airway Inflammation

Experimental studies have shown that the lipid extract of New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus, is effective in inhibiting 5′-lipoxygenase and cyclo-oxygenase pathways responsible for production of eicosanoids, including leukotrienes and prostaglandins.

In terms of clinical evidence, one double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial enrolled 46 patients with atopic asthma: patients received two capsules of lipid extract (Lyprinol®) or placebo twice daily for 8 weeks. Each capsule of lipid extract contained 50 mg omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and 100 mg olive oil, whereas placebo capsules contained only 150 mg olive oil. In this trial of 36 patients with atopic asthma, Lyprinol® was seen to decrease daytime wheeze and increase morning peak expiratory flow in the randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial.

A separate double-blind randomized crossover trial examined exercise-induced bronchoconstriction: twenty asthmatic subjects with documented hyperpnea-induced bronchoconstriction participated and were placed on 3 weeks of PCSO-524™ or placebo supplementation, followed by a 2-week washout period, before crossing over to the alternative diet. The conclusion was that PCSO-524 (Lyprinol/Omega XL) may have beneficial effects in hyperpnea-induced bronchoconstriction and asthma by serving as a pro-resolving agonist and/or inflammatory antagonist.

Evidence strength summary (asthma): Evidence supporting the use of green-lipped mussel supplements for inflammatory conditions such as asthma is limited and inconsistent. The available clinical trials are small in sample size and short in duration. Results are promising mechanistically, but larger confirmatory trials are required.

5.4 Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

The purpose of one randomized, placebo-controlled trial was to evaluate the effects of PCSO-524®, a marine oil lipid and omega-3 LC-PUFA blend derived from New Zealand green-lipped mussel, on markers of muscle damage and inflammation following muscle-damaging exercise in untrained men. Thirty-two untrained male subjects were randomly assigned to consume 1200 mg/day of PCSO-524® or placebo for 26 days prior to muscle-damaging exercise (downhill running), and continued for 96 hours following the muscle-damaging exercise bout.

Compared to placebo, supplementation with the green-lipped mussel oil blend significantly attenuated sTnI and TNF-α at 2, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours; Mb at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours; and CK-MM at all time points following muscle-damaging exercise. It significantly reduced DOMS at 72 and 96 hours post-exercise, and resulted in significantly less strength loss and provided a protective effect against joint ROM loss at 96 hours. At 24 hours after muscle-damaging exercise, perceived pain was significantly greater compared to baseline in the placebo group only.

A second study used a different protocol: this study investigated if Greenshell™ mussel powder consumption expedited muscle recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. Twenty untrained adult men were recruited into a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study and consumed their allocated intervention for four weeks, then completed a bench-stepping exercise that induced muscle damage. GSM powder promoted muscle function recovery, significantly improving isometric and concentric peak torque at 48 h and 72 h post-exercise, respectively. Participants on the GSM treatment had faster dissipation of soreness, and at 72 h, plasma creatine kinase concentrations in the GSM group were lower compared to the placebo group. This study provides evidence for GSM powder being effective in supporting muscle recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage.

Evidence strength summary (DOMS): Preliminary but positive. Studies are small and limited to untrained males, limiting generalizability. The mechanism (attenuation of acute inflammation post-exercise) is biologically plausible, but replication in larger, more diverse populations is needed.

5.5 Gut Microbiome and Gastrointestinal Health

One study aimed to determine the effect of whole meat greenshell mussel powder on gut microbiota abundance, body composition, and iron status markers in healthy overweight or obese postmenopausal women. This was a 3-month trial involving forty-nine healthy postmenopausal women with BMI between 25 and 35 kg/m² who were randomly assigned to receive 3 g/day of either GSM powder or placebo. No significant changes were found in any of the outcome measures, except for ferritin levels that showed a significant reduction over time.

In a separate 12-week non-blinded, randomized study (N=40), the primary outcome was assessment of the effects of supplementation with green-lipped mussel or glucosamine sulphate on common gastrointestinal tract microbial genera in patients with knee osteoarthritis. No differences were found in microbiota from baseline in either group, but both groups demonstrated improvements in GI symptom scores, with no difference between groups.

Evidence strength summary (gut microbiome): Early-stage, mixed findings. The prebiotic hypothesis is supported by animal data but not yet convincingly demonstrated in well-powered human clinical trials.

5.6 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Children with ADHD have lower blood levels of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) compared with children without ADHD, and following PUFA supplementation, have shown improvements in ADHD-related symptoms. One investigated marine-based LC-PUFA preparation is PCSO-524®, which contains a unique combination of free fatty acids, sterol esters, polar lipids, and carotenoids. A 2023 study suggests that administering 200 mg of green-lipped mussel oil daily to children may help alleviate symptoms of ADHD.

Evidence strength summary (ADHD): Only sparse and inconsistent evidence supports the use of green-lipped mussel supplements for ADHD in children. Existing published work includes protocol papers and small pilot studies. No large-scale, independently replicated RCT has established efficacy for this indication.

5.7 Cancer

At the time of an early clinical trial examining GLM lipid extract in cancer patients, the use of LOX inhibitors as anticancer agents in clinical studies had been limited. Despite the lack of clinical evidence, there was significant patient use driven by media interest based on preclinical results.

A Phase I clinical study examined the safety and tolerability of Lyprinol® in patients with advanced prostate and breast cancer: a phase I study determined the safety, tolerability, and maximum tolerated dose of green-lipped mussel lipid extract in patients with advanced prostate and breast cancer, published in Annals of Oncology in 2010. This study was designed to assess safety rather than efficacy.

Evidence strength summary (cancer): Evidence is confined to in vitro and animal studies and a single Phase I safety study. There is no clinical evidence for anti-cancer efficacy in humans. This area remains at the earliest stages of scientific exploration.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Green-Lipped Mussel

• Musculoskeletal system: Joint health in OA and RA; cartilage protection; post-exercise muscle recovery.
• Respiratory system: Airway inflammation in asthma; exercise-induced bronchoconstriction.
• Gastrointestinal system: Research shows GLM can influence the diversity and metabolic activity of intestinal bacteria, functioning somewhat like a prebiotic, and has a gastroprotective effect, meaning it helps maintain the intestinal barrier.
• Neurological/Behavioral: Preliminary evidence regarding LC-PUFA supplementation and ADHD symptomatology in children.
• Immune system: Immunomodulation, by which an immune response is modified through the administration of a compound that could be classed as a prebiotic, is a quality that can be harnessed from marine invertebrates such as the green-lipped mussel.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Limited clinical trial data are available to inform therapeutic dosing. In arthritis and asthma trials, various dosages from multi-ingredient commercial preparations have been described, making it difficult to establish dosing recommendations.

Dosages reported in specific studies include:

• Stabilized green-lipped mussel powder: 1150 mg/day; the derived lipid extract: 210 mg/day (in a 3-month double-blind arthritis trial).
• Lyprinol® in the asthma trial: two capsules of lipid extract (each containing 50 mg omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and 100 mg olive oil) twice daily for 8 weeks.
• PCSO-524® (green-lipped mussel oil blend): 1200 mg/day for 26 days prior to and 96 hours after muscle-damaging exercise, in untrained males.
• A novel GSM lipid extract enriched in N-acylethanolamine and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: 600 mg/day versus corn oil placebo over 12 weeks in moderate-to-severe OA patients.
• Whole meat GSM powder: 3 g/day over 3 months in overweight/obese postmenopausal women.
• Some studies have used doses of lipid extract ranging from 200 to 400 mg daily, while powdered forms have been used at doses of 1050 to 1150 mg daily for up to three months.
• A 2023 study on ADHD used 200 mg of green-lipped mussel oil daily in children.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Contraindications

Hypersensitivity to shellfish is a primary contraindication. As a marine-derived product, the most critical risk is a severe allergic reaction in individuals with a shellfish allergy. Other adverse effects are typically mild and gastrointestinal in nature.

Use with caution in individuals with hepatic impairment. Use should be avoided, and information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking.

Gastrointestinal Adverse Effects

Members of the Australian Rheumatism Association reported side effects such as stomach upset, gout, and skin rashes occurring in people taking certain New Zealand green-lipped mussel extracts. Another researcher observed nausea, flatulence, and fluid retention in some study participants.

Hepatotoxicity

There have been a few isolated case reports in medical literature of transient drug-induced liver injury (hepatitis) associated with GLM supplementation. Symptoms included elevated liver enzymes, jaundice, and malaise, which resolved upon discontinuation of the supplement. This is considered a very rare idiosyncratic reaction, but it warrants caution in individuals with pre-existing liver disease. Early reports also described liver inflammation linked to a brand of products contaminated with toxins produced by the mussel.

Gout

Mussels, like other shellfish, contain purines, which are metabolized into uric acid in the body. In individuals with a history of gout, there is a theoretical risk that consuming mussel-derived products could trigger a gout flare.

Drug Interactions

The most clinically notable potential interaction is with anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs including warfarin, rivaroxaban, apixaban, clopidogrel, aspirin, and NSAIDs. The antiplatelet effect of the omega-3s in GLM is pharmacodynamically additive with these medications. Green-lipped mussel products might also interact with or amplify the effects of anti-inflammatory drugs like NSAIDs.

Overall Safety Profile in Trials

Side effects reported in early studies included fluid retention, nausea, and gastrointestinal upset. More recent studies, however, have not found serious adverse events tied to mussel-containing supplements.

References

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