verdolaga

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.)

1. Identity

Botanical and Taxonomic Classification

Portulaca oleracea L., commonly known as purslane, is a member of the family Portulacaceae. It is an herbaceous succulent annual plant distributed worldwide. The specific epithet oleracea means "vegetable/herbal" in Latin, derived from holus meaning "vegetable," while the genus name portulāca is simply the plant's name in Latin. An alternative etymological note holds that the botanical name is derived from the Latin potare (meaning "to carry") and lac (or "milk," referring to the milky sap of the plant). Recognized synonyms include Portulaca neglecta Mack. & Bush and Portulaca retusa Engelm.

Purslane has an extensive distribution, assumed to be mostly anthropogenic (or hemerochoric), extending from North Africa and Southern Europe through the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent to Malesia and Australasia. It most likely originated in the eastern Mediterranean or western Asia but has since become naturalized worldwide. Approximately 40 cultivars of P. oleracea are currently grown.

Physical Description

Stems are cylindrical, up to 30 cm long, 2–3 mm in diameter, green or red, swollen at the nodes, smooth, diffusely branched, with internodes 1.5–3.5 cm in length. Leaves are alternate or subopposite, flat, fleshy, obovate, 1–5 cm long, 0.5–2 cm across, obtuse or slightly notched at the apex, tapering at the base, sessile or indistinctly petiolate, glabrous, smooth, and waxy on the upper surface, with entire margin. Purslane produces bright yellow flowers that appear in clusters during the summer months.

Common Names and Preparations

Purslane is known by many colloquial names, including ma chi xian in Chinese, verdolagas in Spanish, and "little hogweed" in English. It is an important component of green salads, and its soft stems and leaves are consumed raw, alone, or with other greens; it is also used in cooking or as a pickle. As a dietary supplement or medicinal preparation, purslane is encountered as whole fresh or dried aerial parts, standardized extracts in capsule form, topical gels, seeds, and seed oils. The stems, leaves, and flower buds are all edible, offering a crisp, cucumber-like texture with a slightly salty, tart, lemony flavor with a peppery kick.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Antiquity and the Mediterranean World

Purslane has been used medicinally for at least 2,000 years, but was used as food well before this period. Purslane was known in ancient Egypt and is mentioned in Greek manuscripts as early as 600 BC. Its medicinal value is noted in several Indian traditional medicinal systems, including Ayurveda, and was documented in the writings of both Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder and Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides. The plant was mentioned in the writings of Pliny the Elder in the first century CE; within the Roman Empire it was used in cases of headaches, inflammation, bladder disorders, dysentery, and hemorrhoids. Ancient Romans also used purslane to treat intestinal worms and stomachache.

The use of this plant as a vegetable, herb, spice, and medicinal plant has been known since the times of the ancient Egyptians and was popular in England during the Middle Ages.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

Purslane has also been used for thousands of years in traditional Chinese medicine and is referred to as the "vegetable for long life." Aerial parts are dried and used for fever, diarrhea, carbuncle, eczema, and hematochezia. Other TCM uses include diabetes, atherosclerosis, vascular endothelial dysfunction, and urolithiasis. In TCM, where acknowledgment of the plant apparently came even earlier than in Rome, the plant is considered "cold" in nature. TCM formulators have used the plant to cool the blood and neutralize toxins. Dried aerial parts were indicated for treatment of fever, dysentery, diarrhea, carbuncles, eczema, and hematochezia (blood in the stool). It is considered to have blood-cooling and hemostatic properties, hence useful internally in bleeding bacillary dysentery, bloody stool, bleeding hemorrhoids, and metrorrhagia.

Indian Traditional Medicine

The plant has also appeared in Indian traditional medicine systems where it was used to treat indigestion, ulcers, edema, eye diseases, and bronchial asthma.

Broader Ethnomedicinal Uses

Purslane's medicinal value is evident from its use in the treatment of burns, headache, and diseases related to the intestine, liver, stomach, cough, shortness of breath, and arthritis. Its use as a purgative, cardiac tonic, emollient, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic treatment makes it important in herbal medicine. In folk medicine, purslane is commonly used as a febrifuge, antiseptic, and vermifuge, and has been employed to treat a variety of ailments including fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, eczema, and bleeding disorders. The juice of the plant is sometimes used in earache and toothache.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Fatty Acids

Purslane is a very good source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3 ω-3), with approximately 4 mg/g fresh weight. Phytochemical studies have shown that purslane is one of the richest terrestrial sources of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids, ascorbic acid, tocopherols, glutathione, and β-carotene, suggesting strong nutraceutical potential. Alpha-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in humans and is an essential dietary fatty acid. Biochemical pathways exist to convert ALA to EPA and EPA to DHA, but such endogenous conversion is limited in humans: between 0.2% and 8% of ALA is converted to EPA and 0% to 4% of ALA to DHA.

Vitamins and Antioxidants

Purslane contains the highest amount of alpha-tocopherol (22.2 mg per 100 g fresh weight; 130 mg per 100 g dry weight) and ascorbic acid (26.6 mg per 100 g fresh weight; 506 mg per 100 g dry weight) among commonly consumed greens. Various studies have shown that purslane is a rich source of important phytochemicals such as flavonoids; alkaloids (including oleraceins, dopa, dopamine, and noradrenaline); terpenoids; proteins; carbohydrates; vitamins A, B, C, and E; carotenoids; and minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.

Minerals

Purslane is a rich source of potassium (494 mg/100 g), followed by magnesium (68 mg/100 g) and calcium (65 mg/100 g), and possesses the potential to be used as a vegetable source of omega-3 fatty acids.

Alkaloids (Oleraceins)

Among the specialized metabolites found in purslane are alkaloids including oleraceins A, B, C, D, and E, as well as oleracimine, oleracimine A, oleracone A, oleracone B, β-carboline, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, dopamine, dopa, and noradrenaline. The presence of noradrenaline and dopamine in purslane is confirmed by several studies. These catecholamines are physiologically active compounds of particular pharmacological interest.

Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids

Besides fatty acids and alkaloids, purslane contains different types of alkaloids, betalain alkaloid pigments (reddish betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins), mucilages and pectins, flavonoids (apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin, quercetin, myricetin, genistein, genistin, portulacanones A–D), phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and rosmarinic acids), lignins, stilbenes, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, chlorophyll, bergapten, and robustin. The main active constituents contributing to anti-inflammatory activity are the flavonoids and phenolics, specifically quercetin and p-coumaric acid.

Melatonin and Phytosterols

High concentrations of melatonin, a free radical scavenger, have recently been identified in purslane; melatonin also reduces total cholesterol in animal models. Another active substance in purslane seed is beta-sitosterol, a phytosterol. Studies have found that beta-sitosterol has cholesterol- and LDL-lowering effects and increases the expression of VEGF while modulating inflammation and regulating the immune system.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides from P. oleracea (POP) are primary constituents of the crude extract and have been found to have various biological activities including antioxidant, antitumor, immune-stimulating, and intestinal protective effects.

Oxalates

The oxalate content of purslane leaves has been reported as 671–869 mg/100 g fresh weight. This constituent is a significant safety consideration (see Section 8).

Chemical Variability

The chemical composition of purslane shows seasonal variation, and also varies depending on growing and harvesting conditions and plant part.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Research indicates that P. oleracea and its constituents show anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties through reduction of inflammatory mediators including interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-10, IL-4, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and nitric oxide. Evidence from rodent studies showed decreased inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa-beta (NF-κβ), and C-reactive protein (CRP), while interleukin-10 (IL-10) was increased after intervention with purslane.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Portulaca oleracea displays promising antioxidant properties, mainly acting as a free radical scavenger, metal quencher, lipid peroxidation inhibitor, and even a significant DNA protectant against hydroxyl radicals.

Metabolic and Lipid Mechanisms

The effectiveness of purslane seed consumption in lowering cholesterol levels is explained by the synergistic effect of both phytosterols and unsaturated fatty acids. The omega-3 fatty acid ALA contributes to triglyceride-lowering effects via incorporation into cell membrane phospholipids and modulation of eicosanoid synthesis pathways. Dietary ALA has been shown in RCTs to reduce total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood pressure; epidemiologic studies and some trials have also shown an anti-inflammatory effect of ALA.

Neuroprotective Alkaloid Activity

Several neuropharmacological actions have been identified, particularly anti-nociceptive and muscle-relaxing activity, with a range of effects on the central and peripheral nervous system observed in animal studies. The oleraceins (unique tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids) have been studied in cell and animal models for neuroprotective potential, though human evidence is currently absent.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Glycemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes

This is the area with the largest and most consistent body of human clinical evidence for purslane.

Key RCT: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of purslane extract (PE) in improving glucose control, blood pressure, and lipid profile in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with a single oral hypoglycemic agent at baseline. The double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial included 63 adult subjects with type 2 diabetes who were randomized to receive either 180 mg/day of a purslane extract or a placebo for 12 weeks in the form of three oral capsules. The findings showed that the purslane extract was effective in improving blood glucose control in type 2 diabetic patients, as demonstrated by reduction in HbA1c after 12 weeks of treatment.

Additional RCT — Seeds: A study involved 196 women with type 2 diabetes whose fasting blood glucose levels were greater than 200 mg/dL. The training program and purslane seed consumption (2.5 g at lunch and 5 g at dinner) were carried out for 16 weeks. Blood glucose, LDL, cholesterol, TG, creatinine, urea, and uric acid levels were significantly decreased compared to pre-experimental levels or the placebo group, while HDL significantly increased. Furthermore, the protein and mRNA levels of NF-κB, TIMP-1, MMP2 & 9, CRP, CST3, and CTSS significantly decreased while GLP-1 and GLP-1R levels increased.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (T2DM): A GRADE-assessed systematic review and meta-analysis found that purslane supplementation significantly reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels (WMD: −15.01; 95% CI: −25.31, −4.71; p = 0.004), total cholesterol (TC) (WMD: −17.75; 95% CI: −26.06, −9.45; p < 0.001), triglyceride (TG) (WMD: −21.30; 95% CI: −32.59, −10.00; p < 0.001), LDL-C (WMD: −6.10; 95% CI: −9.52, −2.68; p < 0.001), and CRP levels (WMD: −1.44; 95% CI: −2.25, −0.63; p < 0.001), and increased HDL-C (WMD: 6.17; 95% CI: 2.53, 9.80; p < 0.001). However, the same meta-analysis found that, overall, purslane had no significant effect on HOMA-IR, HbA1c, or insulin levels. Results across studies have been described as conflicting.

Evidence Strength: Moderate. Multiple RCTs and meta-analyses indicate favorable effects on fasting glucose and lipid parameters in T2DM patients, but results for HbA1c and insulin are inconsistent, and trials vary in formulation, dose, and population characteristics.

5.2 Lipid Profile (General Population and Metabolic Syndrome)

Meta-Analysis (Lipid Profile and CRP): A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis incorporating 14 effect sizes from 13 RCTs demonstrated that purslane consumption significantly decreases serum triglyceride (WMD: −16.72, 95% CI: −22.49, −10.96 mg/dL; p < 0.001), total cholesterol (WMD: −9.97, 95% CI: −19.86, −0.07 mg/dL; p = 0.048), and CRP (WMD: −1.22, 95% CI: −1.63, −0.80 mg/L; p < 0.001) compared to control. In addition, purslane significantly increases HDL-C (WMD: 4.09, 95% CI: 1.77, 6.41 mg/dL; p = 0.001). However, purslane consumption did not significantly affect LDL-C levels in this analysis.

Meta-Analysis (Anthropometric and Lipid Parameters, 2025): Purslane supplementation significantly reduces body weight (WMD: −1.7 kg; p < 0.003) and BMI (WMD: −0.6; p < 0.04). For lipid profile improvement, higher dosages of >1 g/day administered for shorter durations (<12 weeks) were more effective, particularly in reducing triglycerides (WMD: −15.8 mg/dL; p = 0.009) and LDL (WMD: −6.2 mg/dL; p = 0.003). Purslane supplements exhibited efficacy in weight control and enhancement of lipid profiles when administered at higher dosages and for shorter treatment periods.

Meta-Analysis (Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease — NAFLD): A meta-analysis of six RCTs (n = 386) found that purslane significantly decreased triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL-C. Purslane also significantly decreased fasting blood glucose (WMD: −6.28 mg/dL; p < 0.001), HOMA-IR (WMD: −0.83; p = 0.027), and alanine aminotransferase (WMD: −6.35 IU/L; p < 0.001) in this population.

Evidence Strength: Moderate. Meta-analyses consistently point to TG-lowering and modest TC-lowering effects, with some inconsistency in LDL outcomes across analyses. Dosage and duration appear to moderate effects.

5.3 Cardiovascular Health and ALA

Purslane is frequently cited as a cardiovascular-supportive food due to its ALA content. Three randomized controlled trials (the AlphaOmega trial, the PREDIMED trial, and the Lyon Diet Heart Study) all showed benefits of diets high in ALA on cardiovascular-related outcomes, but the AlphaOmega trial, designed specifically to evaluate ALA effects, only showed a trend for benefit. RCTs have shown that dietary ALA reduces total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood pressure. However, it is important to note that no RCTs have specifically evaluated purslane itself for hard cardiovascular endpoints (e.g., myocardial infarction, stroke). Human endogenous conversion of ALA to the longer-chain EPA and DHA is limited (0.2–8% conversion to EPA; 0–4% to DHA), so the cardiovascular relevance of plant-sourced ALA specifically from purslane has not been directly established in controlled trials.

Evidence Strength: Preliminary to moderate for surrogate cardiovascular markers (lipids, blood pressure, inflammation). No direct RCT evidence for purslane-specific cardiovascular event reduction.

5.4 Oral Lichen Planus (OLP)

A study evaluated the effectiveness of antioxidant-rich purslane in the treatment of oral lichen planus. A total of 37 biopsy-proven symptomatic OLP patients were selected for a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial, divided into two groups to receive purslane (n = 20) or placebo (n = 17) for 3 months. Approximately 83% of the purslane patients showed partial to complete clinical improvement, but 17% had no response. In the placebo group, 17% experienced partial improvement, 73% did not respond, and 10% showed worsening. According to those findings, purslane is clinically effective in the treatment of OLP. Considering the lack of side effects during the study period, it may be a favorable alternative treatment for OLP.

A separate double-blind clinical trial compared topical purslane gel at two concentrations with the standard treatment. This study assessed the efficacy of topical purslane at 5% and 10% concentrations in OLP and compared clinical improvement to topical 0.1% triamcinolone acetonide gel. Thirty-four subjects confirmed histopathologically with OLP were included and divided into three groups, examined at baseline, 14 days, 30 days, 60 days, and 90 days.

A network meta-analysis found that purslane was clinically significant and ranked first in improving clinical symptoms (RR = 4.53; 95% CI: 1.45, 14.11). Purslane, aloe vera, and photodynamic therapy appear promising in the treatment of OLP, though more high-quality trials are recommended for strengthening the evidence. Since the antioxidant activity of purslane has been demonstrated by only one study with a high risk of bias, the conclusions require caution.

Evidence Strength: Preliminary. Only a small number of RCTs; promising results but limited sample sizes and some risk of bias. Not a standard-of-care recommendation.

5.5 Inflammation and CRP

Purslane's anti-inflammatory effects have been assessed as secondary outcomes across multiple clinical trials. Meta-analysis data across 13 RCTs show that purslane consumption significantly decreases CRP (WMD: −1.22, 95% CI: −1.63, −0.80 mg/L; p < 0.001). In patients with metabolic syndrome, purslane could significantly lower blood glucose and balance lipid profiles, with CRP reduction a consistent finding. Animal model evidence documents reduced IL-6, TNF-α, and NF-κB, with increased IL-10, though translation to human therapeutic outcomes requires further clinical substantiation.

Evidence Strength: Moderate for CRP reduction based on pooled RCT data; mechanistic evidence in animals is robust, but human evidence for other specific inflammatory markers remains limited.

5.6 Body Weight and Obesity

A meta-analysis found that purslane supplementation significantly reduces body weight (WMD: −1.7 kg; p < 0.003) and BMI (WMD: −0.6; p < 0.04). Although several studies suggest that purslane effectively reduces body weight, BMI, and waist circumference, others have reported inconsistent findings.

Evidence Strength: Preliminary to moderate. Pooled data show statistically significant but modest effects; individual trial results are heterogeneous.

5.7 Neuroprotective Effects

Evidence for neuroprotective effects of purslane is currently limited to preclinical studies. Several neuropharmacological actions have been identified in animal studies, particularly anti-nociceptive and muscle-relaxing activity, with effects on both the central and peripheral nervous system. No clinical trials have evaluated purslane for neurological endpoints in humans.

Evidence Strength: Preclinical/animal only. No human clinical evidence is available at this time.

5.8 Dermatological Applications

Modern research into purslane's potential dermatological uses is ongoing, but the evidence is relatively scarce. There are indications that antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound healing activity reportedly exhibited by purslane may be harnessed for various cutaneous applications; however, much more research is necessary.

Evidence Strength: Largely traditional and preclinical. Limited human trial data outside of OLP.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Endocrine/Metabolic System: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, and obesity have all been examined in clinical trials.
• Cardiovascular System: Lipid-lowering (TG, TC), blood pressure modulation, and CRP reduction supported by pooled RCT data; direct event-reduction evidence is absent.
• Gastrointestinal System: Historically used for diarrhea, dysentery, and intestinal inflammation; preliminary clinical and in vitro data on intestinal protective effects of polysaccharides.
• Immune and Inflammatory System: Significant anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects demonstrated in animal models and corroborated by CRP reduction across multiple human RCTs.
• Oral Mucosa: Purslane for oral lichen planus is supported by at least two small RCTs and a network meta-analysis.
• Renal System: Of concern in the context of oxalate nephropathy (see Section 8).
• Nervous System: Preclinical interest in neuroprotection via oleraceins; no human data.
• Integumentary (Skin): Topical anti-inflammatory and wound-healing potential; evidence is limited.

7. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Studies

No universal standardized dose has been established. The following doses and forms have been reported in clinical research:

• Purslane extract (standardized, oral capsules): 180 mg/day (three oral capsules) for 12 weeks, as used in the landmark double-blind T2DM RCT.
• Purslane seeds (oral): 2.5 g at lunch and 5 g at dinner (7.5 g/day total) for 16 weeks, as used in the Iranian women with T2DM study.
• General safe upper limit: According to suggested optimal dosage references, purslane consumption is considered to be safe up to 30 g/day.
• Topical gel: 5% and 10% purslane gel concentrations have been evaluated in clinical trials for oral lichen planus.
• Higher dosages: Dosages of >1 g/day administered for shorter durations (<12 weeks) were associated with more effective lipid-profile improvement in meta-analysis.

Seed oil, dried herb, fresh herb (in salads), and tea preparations are used in traditional contexts but have not been consistently standardized or evaluated in controlled clinical research.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

General Tolerability

Overall, purslane appears to be safe and well-tolerated. Its therapeutic effects are associated with fewer and less severe adverse events in the clinical studies reviewed. Formal contraindications have not been identified in the reviewed literature; however, information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking, and use should be avoided in these populations due to insufficient data.

Oxalate Content and Renal Risk

The most clinically significant documented safety issue is the high oxalate content of purslane. Case reports describe acute kidney injury considered to be due to oxalate nephropathy in the setting of purslane ingestion. The patients presented with oliguria, nausea, vomiting, and clinical manifestations of acute kidney injury requiring renal replacement therapy. One patient underwent a renal biopsy that showed acute tubulointerstitial injury and partial tubular oxalate deposition. These cases illustrate acute oxalate nephropathy in the setting of high dietary consumption of purslane.

The oxalate content of purslane leaves has been quantified at 671–869 mg/100 g fresh weight, which is high relative to most vegetables. Individuals with a history of calcium oxalate kidney stones or chronic kidney disease face elevated risk from habitual high-quantity consumption.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Use during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided; information regarding safety and efficacy in these populations is lacking.

Drug Interactions

If a patient uses any medicinal plant or has a tendency to use it, they must discuss this with health care providers to prevent drug interactions and to adjust the dose of antidiabetic or other drugs. Given that purslane has demonstrated blood glucose-lowering effects in clinical trials, concurrent use with oral hypoglycemic agents or insulin carries a theoretical risk of additive hypoglycemia, as the landmark T2DM trial was conducted in subjects already receiving oral hypoglycemic agents. The catecholamine content (dopamine, noradrenaline) of the plant is of theoretical relevance in patients taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) or related drugs, though no human pharmacokinetic interaction studies have specifically addressed this.

Oxalate Reduction in Preparation

Boiling and pickling are traditional preparation methods that can reduce the soluble oxalate burden of purslane, and pairing with calcium-rich foods can further reduce intestinal oxalate absorption by promoting gut-level oxalate binding.

References

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