zarzaparrilla

Sarsaparilla (Smilax spp.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Members of the genus Smilax, commonly known as sarsaparilla, are renowned for their medicinal and economic importance. Belonging to the monocot family Smilacaceae Vent., the genus comprises over 267 species, predominantly recorded as native to the tropical, subtropical, and temperate habitats of the Old and New World.

The genus Smilax comprises about 350 species, found in temperate, tropical, and subtropical zones worldwide, with plants occurring throughout Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas. Species of the genus commonly called sarsaparilla are characterized as climbers, with long, thin thorny stems; the branches have tendrils which attach to other plants or objects and grow steadily upward.

Principal medicinal species include:

• Smilax aristolochiifolia (Mexican sarsaparilla), S. officinalis (Honduras sarsaparilla), Smilax regelii (Honduras/Jamaican sarsaparilla), Smilax febrifuga (Ecuadorian sarsaparilla), and Smilax ornata.
• S. officinalis, S. japicanga, and S. febrifuga from South America (Brazil, Ecuador, and Colombia); S. regelii, S. aristolochiaefolia, and S. ornata from Mexico and Latin America; and S. glabra from China.

Many species of Smilax around the world share the name sarsaparilla and are very similar in appearance, uses, and even chemical contents. Since the chemistry is so similar in all these species, it is not unusual that they have all shown similar benefits and actions in scientific research around the world.

The word "sarsaparilla" comes from the Spanish name zarzaparrilla, meaning "brambly vine." The Spanish learned of the plant from the Native Americans and brought sarsaparilla to Europe.

The root, used for medicinal purposes, is long and tuberous — spreading 6–8 feet — and is odorless and fairly tasteless. The rhizome, roots, stems, and leaves of sarsaparilla are used in traditional medicine.

The 2020 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia delineates Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma (SGR) as the dried rhizome of Smilax glabra Roxb. S. glabra was first recorded in the Ben Cao Jing Ji Zhu of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 AD) and has been documented for nutritional and medicinal properties for thousands of years.

Common Preparations and Commercial Forms

The specific preparation and application of sarsaparilla vary depending on the tradition, but it is often consumed as a tea, decoction, or tincture. Modern commercial forms include:

• Teas, which represent the most traditional and accessible form; capsules, which are used when a standardized dose is preferred; and syrups or tonics, which are a nod to the plant's history in the Old West and are still sold as old-fashioned beverages or for medicinal use.
• The root has a pleasant fragrance and spicy sweet taste, and has been used as a natural flavoring agent in medicines, foods, and non-alcoholic beverages.
• The U.S. FDA considers sarsaparilla to be a natural flavoring substance for use in foods and drinks.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Indigenous and Pre-Columbian Use

Native Americans and indigenous peoples of South America were the first to recognise its medicinal properties, using the roots of the sarsaparilla plant to brew tea, treating ailments such as colds, coughs, skin conditions, and digestive issues. Indigenous cultures in South America traditionally employed sarsaparilla as a remedy for skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis, as well as for arthritis and joint pain. It was also used as a diuretic and a blood purifier.

The Aztecs used this herb in the treatment of syphilis, chronic skin ailments especially those causing putrid ulcerations, and in cases of bone disease.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

S. glabra is used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to clear heat and dampness, and to treat conditions such as gout and skin infections. Smilax has been traditionally used for centuries to treat a range of ailments, including diabetes, gout, rheumatism, skin disorders, and syphilis.

European Introduction and Pharmacopoeial History

A Smilax root from Mexico was introduced into European medicine in 1536, where it developed a strong following as a cure for syphilis and rheumatism. The 16th-century physician Nicolás Monardes devoted two chapters of his Joyfulle Newes Out of the Newe Founde Worlde to this herb. Following the traditional theory of the time that illness had to be expelled through bleeding, diuretics, laxatives, or profuse sweating, he described an arduous cure in which a thick juice is made by soaking and then boiling the chopped root or root bark.

China root — usually identified with various species of Smilax — spread westward from China by traders from 1535 onwards. Demand became global before being largely replaced in Europe by supplies of various American Smilax species, known collectively as "Sarsaparilla."

The American sarsaparilla species was introduced to Europe in the 16th century as a remedy for syphilis and other chronic diseases including rheumatism. It was considered a tonic, alterative, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and the smoke was recommended for asthma.

The oldest references to sarsaparilla are from Old World antiquity, where Smilax aspera was used as an antidote for poisons. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides (first century CE) devoted a chapter to this plant in his work on medicinal plants from the Mediterranean (De materia medica, Book IV, chapter 142), describing the leaves and red berries as both a preservative and an antidote for poisons.

In 1812, Portuguese soldiers suffering from syphilis recovered faster with use of sarsaparilla versus mercury, the standard treatment for syphilis at the time. Sarsaparilla was an official herb of the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1920 for the treatment of venereal diseases.

Sarsaparilla was documented as an adjuvant for leprosy treatment in 1959. The inflated claims for the plant's cure of syphilis eventually caused its popularity to wane; however, during its height of popularity in 1831, for example, 176,854 pounds of the herb were imported into England alone.

Ayurvedic Tradition

Ayurvedic medicine also utilizes sarsaparilla for its anti-inflammatory and detoxifying properties. Another variety, known as Indian sarsaparilla or Hemidesmus indicus, holds significance in Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, for its detoxifying properties. (Note: Hemidesmus indicus is botanically distinct from the Smilax genus but shares the common name in Ayurvedic contexts.)

Beverage History

Sarsaparilla has a long, medicinal history and was one of the first flavorings used in soft drinks in the 19th century. Sarsaparilla was widely consumed across 19th-century America and was especially popular with cowboys and ranchers. It was traditionally consumed as a medicinal tonic, believed to be a remedy for skin and blood problems, as well as syphilis.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

To date, at least 1058 compounds have been identified from Smilax species, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroidal saponins, polysaccharides, and stilbenoids.

Steroidal Saponins and Sapogenins

Sarsaparilla contains the plant steroids sarsasapogenin, smilagenin, sitosterol, stigmasterol, and pollinastanol; and the saponins sarsasaponin, smilasaponin, sarsaparilloside, and sitosterol glucoside, among others. Many of sarsaparilla's pharmacological properties and actions have been attributed to these steroids and saponins.

Sarsasapogenin is a steroidal spirostanol sapogenin — the aglycosidic portion of a plant saponin. It was one of the first sapogenins to be identified, and the first spirostan steroid to be identified as such. The identification of the spirostan structure, with its ketone spiro acetal functionality, was fundamental in the development of the Marker degradation, which allowed the industrial production of progesterone and other sex hormones from plant steroids.

The biosynthetic mechanism, chemical structure, and therapeutic actions of steroidal saponins remain elusive despite countless investigations. Glycosylation is assumed to be the final step in the production of steroidal saponins and to have a role in regulating biological activity.

Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds

The representative component astilbin accounts for approximately 1–2% of the dry weight of S. glabra rhizome and constitutes the largest proportion of total flavonoids. It exhibits pharmacological activities including antioxidant effects, actions on the cardiovascular system, antimicrobial activity, immunosuppressive activity, and anti-inflammatory effects. In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission (2020), astilbin is used for quality inspection of S. glabra rhizome, with a minimum required content of 0.45%.

Other candidate quality marker compounds in S. glabra rhizome include isoengelitin, neoisoastilbin, neoastilbin, astragaloside, diosgenin, resveratrol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and quercetin.

Antioxidant properties in sarsaparilla are attributed to phenolic compounds such as stilbenes, flavones, flavanones, flavonols, smilasides, smiglasides, and helionosides, among others.

From the rhizomes of S. glabra alone, researchers have isolated six new phenolic compounds — smiglabrone A, smiglabrone B, smilachromanone, smiglastilbene, smiglactone, and smiglabrol — together with fifty-seven known ones.

Phytosterols and Additional Constituents

Sarsaparilla also contains phytosterols, such as beta-sitosterol, which may contribute to the anti-inflammatory effect of this herb. Additional reported constituents include acetyl-parigenin, diosgenin, ferulic acid, kaempferol, parigenin, parillin, resveratrol, rhamnose, shikimic acid, smilax saponins A–C, smiglaside A–E, smitilbin, taxifolin, and titogenin.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Endotoxin Binding

The ability of sarsaparilla to bind to endotoxins may be a possible mechanism of action as to how the plant exerts its effects. Problems associated with high endotoxin levels circulating in the bloodstream — such as liver disease, psoriasis, fevers, and inflammatory processes — all seem to improve with sarsaparilla. Sarsaponin, one of sarsaparilla's main steroids, was found to bind to these endotoxins and remove them, thus improving psoriasis.

Immunomodulation

Sarsaparilla, also known as Smilax glabra rhizome (SGR), was shown to modulate immunity, protect against liver injury, lower blood glucose, and suppress cancer. Investigations into astilbin have mapped a diverse spectrum of pharmacological benefits, including cardiovascular, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, hepatoprotective, renoprotective, antioxidative, antidiabetic, analgesic, anti-edema, antibacterial, and rejection-inhibitory activities, alongside dose-dependent inhibition of casein kinase II.

NF-κB and Flavonoid-Mediated Anti-Inflammatory Signaling

Flavonoids, the most abundant and readily extractable constituents of S. glabra rhizome, can counteract AGE-induced endothelial dysfunction, notably through the RAGE-ERK1/2-NF-κB signaling pathway.

Hormone-Related Activity

Sarsaparilla contains steroidal saponins, such as sarsasapogenin, which may mimic the action of some human hormones; however, this property remains undocumented in clinical studies. Importantly, some supplement makers claim that sterols in sarsaparilla can be converted to anabolic steroids like testosterone, but this is a false claim. The sterols contained in sarsaparilla are not anabolic steroids nor are they converted in the body to anabolic steroids. Testosterone has never been detected in any plant, including sarsaparilla.

Bioavailability Enhancement

The saponins in sarsaparilla have been reported to facilitate the body's absorption of other drugs and phytochemicals, which accounts for its history of use in herbal formulas as an agent for bioavailability enhancement and to increase the potency and effect of other herbs.

Sarsasapogenin: Neuroprotective and Metabolic Actions

Sarsasapogenin has been reported for many pharmacological actions and has been widely investigated for anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and memory impairment properties related to ageing. Additionally, its modified structure and a number of derivatives have been confirmed to have biological properties such as antitumour activity, antidepressant activity, anxiolytic-like action, and an Aβ-reducing effect.

Sarsasapogenin and its C-25 epimer smilagenin lowered blood sugar and reversed diabetic weight gain in experiments in mice with a mutant diabetes gene (db). Both steroids also halted the decline in muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) in animal models of Alzheimer's disease.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Skin Conditions (Psoriasis, Eczema, Dermatitis)

Traditional basis: For centuries, indigenous people around the world used the root of the sarsaparilla plant for treating joint problems like arthritis, and for healing skin problems like psoriasis, eczema, and dermatitis.

Human evidence: According to the Physician's Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines and other scholarly texts, sarsaparilla species have effects on inflammation and immune function that have been used for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, including psoriasis. Unfortunately, there are no studies using sarsaparilla (S. officinalis) for autoimmune diseases specifically; however, there is evidence that certain species of sarsaparilla can regulate the immune system by inhibiting the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators.

A case report published in PMC (2020) described a 73-year-old woman with psoriatic arthritis in her second and third digits, manifesting as dactylitis with moderate to severe stiffness and edema in her proximal and distal interphalangeal joints and surrounding soft tissue. Intervention consisted of traditional Chinese Medicine-style acupuncture combined with 500 mg of turmeric curcumin (Curcuma longa root extract) with 3 mg of black pepper extract, 425 mg of sarsaparilla root (Smilax officinalis) powdered capsules (non-standardized), and 10,000 IU vitamin D3 once daily. She received two acupuncture treatments in combination with the supplements. No definitive conclusions about sarsaparilla's independent contribution could be drawn, as there has been no isolated research on the effects of S. officinalis.

Preclinical evidence: Astilbin is the active component in the root of S. glabra. A 2016 study found that it may have positive effects in treating inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. In mice with psoriasis-like lesions, 25–50 mg of astilbin per kilogram of body weight inhibited T helper 17 (Th17) cells, which play a key role in promoting inflammation. The researchers also found that astilbin inhibited pro-inflammatory cells in test-tube experiments and concluded that astilbin is likely to improve psoriasis-like lesions and may help regulate the immune system in people with psoriasis.

Evidence strength: Sarsaparilla has been traditionally used for treating syphilis, leprosy, and psoriasis; however, clinical evidence to support these uses is lacking. Evidence for psoriasis remains at the level of animal studies, in vitro data, and a single multi-intervention case report. No controlled human trials have been conducted.

5.2 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Effects

Animal evidence: Smilax ornata Lem. is used in folklore medicine to treat rheumatoid arthritis and rheumatic pain — a claim that had not been scientifically validated before a 2019 investigation. That study examined whether methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of S. ornata possess anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in Sprague-Dawley rats using a carrageenan-induced paw edema model. The methanol extracts (200 and 400 mg/kg) and the ethyl acetate extract (400 mg/kg) exhibited significant (p < 0.05) anti-inflammatory activity compared with control groups, with an onset at 150 minutes and a duration of 2.5 hours.

Various Smilax extracts have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, as well as effects on cardiovascular risk factors and metabolic syndrome; however, evidence is based largely on animal and in vitro studies, and clinical trials are limited.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; predominantly animal and in vitro. No published randomized controlled trials in humans.

5.3 Antimicrobial Activity

In vitro evidence: Thirty isolated compounds from S. glabra rhizomes were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against three gram-negative bacteria, three gram-positive bacteria, and one fungus, and corresponding structure-activity relationships were discussed. One paper looked at the activity of over 60 different phenolic compounds isolated from sarsaparilla, testing these compounds against six types of bacteria and one fungus.

Historical use and limited human data: In 1812, Portuguese soldiers suffering from syphilis recovered faster with use of sarsaparilla versus mercury, the standard treatment for syphilis at the time. Sarsaparilla was also documented as an adjuvant for leprosy treatment in 1959. These historical observations, while notable, do not constitute controlled clinical evidence by modern standards.

Evidence strength: In vitro data only for direct antimicrobial mechanisms. Historical human observations (syphilis, leprosy) are uncontrolled and descriptive.

5.4 Anticancer Properties

In vitro and animal evidence: A 2015 study published in Cancer Prevention Research examined the anticancer activity of the supernatant of the water-soluble extract (SW) from sarsaparilla. Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry–ion trap–time-of-flight (LC/MS-IT-TOF) analysis identified flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenylpropanoids as the major bioactive components of SW. SW markedly inhibited the growth of a broad spectrum of cancer cell lines in both in vitro and in vivo assays. SW-induced GSH/GSSG imbalance activated the ERK1/2 pathway, which contributed to SW-induced S phase arrest, apoptosis, autophagy, and the resultant growth-inhibitory effect.

A further study found that the water-soluble extract from sarsaparilla could promote adhesion, inhibit migration and invasion of HepG2, MDA-MB-231, and T24 cells in vitro, as well as suppress metastasis of MDA-MB-231 cells in vivo. Microarray analysis indicated a repression of TGF-β1 signaling by SW treatment, verified by real-time RT-PCR of TGF-β1-related genes and immunoblotting of TGFBR1 protein.

A follow-up study reported an activation of the ATM/ATR-dependent signaling pathway as an additional mechanism for cancer cell growth inhibition induced by SW. SW treatment at 3.5 μg/μL promoted phosphorylations of ATM, ATR, and CHK1 in AGS and HT-29 cells. The ATM kinase inhibitor KU55933 could reverse SW-induced ERK phosphorylation.

Evidence strength: All available cancer-related evidence for sarsaparilla is preclinical (cell lines and animal models). No human clinical trials have been conducted.

5.5 Antidiabetic Effects

In vitro and animal evidence: Astilbin has been noted for its antitumor, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-hyperuricemic, and hepatoprotective potential, warranting further research for therapeutic applications. Sarsasapogenin and its C-25 epimer smilagenin lowered blood sugar and reversed diabetic weight gain in experiments with mice carrying a mutant diabetes gene (db).

Flavonoids from S. glabra rhizome can counteract AGE-induced endothelial dysfunction through the RAGE-ERK1/2-NF-κB signaling pathway. While the role of flavonoids has been extensively studied, research on stilbenes, despite demonstrating antidiabetic properties, is less complete.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only. No human clinical trials specifically testing sarsaparilla for diabetes have been published.

5.6 Hepatoprotective Effects

Reports have shown anti-inflammatory and liver-protecting effects for sarsaparilla. Sarsaparilla (S. glabra rhizome) has been shown in experimental studies to protect against liver injury. These reports are based on in vitro data and animal models; no human clinical trials on hepatoprotection have been published.

5.7 Gout and Hyperuricemia

Smilax has been traditionally used for centuries to treat gout, among other ailments. Astilbin has been specifically noted for its anti-hyperuricemic potential, warranting further research for therapeutic applications. Evidence for this application is preclinical (animal models) only.

5.8 Neuroprotective Effects

Overall, sarsasapogenin is a potent molecule with anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-osteoclastogenic, and neuroprotective activities. It is also a potential molecule in the treatment for precocious puberty. Additionally, its modified structure and a number of derivatives have been confirmed to have biological properties such as antitumour activity, antidepressant activity, anxiolytic-like action, and an Aβ-reducing effect.

Sarsasapogenin, total saponins, and related compounds from Anemarrhena asphodeloides possess antidepressant bioactivity. Bioassays showed that sarsasapogenin at 50 mg/kg could sharply increase noradrenaline and serotonin levels in hypothalamus and hippocampus. These findings are from animal studies and cannot be extrapolated to human efficacy.

5.9 Athletic/Ergogenic Claims

Evidence is lacking for purported ergogenic and adaptogenic effects. Sarsaparilla has been falsely marketed by supplement makers as containing anabolic steroids like testosterone. While the plant sterols found in sarsaparilla can be chemically synthesized into these steroids in the laboratory, this has never been documented to happen in the human body. Many bodybuilding supplements contain sarsaparilla, but the root has never been proven to have any anabolic effects.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Sarsaparilla

• Integumentary system: Isolated constituents exhibit broad pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties relevant to skin conditions.
• Musculoskeletal system: Traditional use for rheumatism and gout, supported by preclinical anti-inflammatory data.
• Immune system: Reports exist in the scientific literature on immunomodulatory properties.
• Hepatic system: Preclinical data show protection against liver injury.
• Endocrine/metabolic system: Animal studies show blood-sugar lowering and reversal of diabetic weight gain with sarsasapogenin.
• Central nervous system: Animal models suggest sarsasapogenin may halt the decline in muscarinic acetylcholine receptors relevant to Alzheimer's disease.
• Urinary system: Roots have been used for centuries in Asia and the Americas as a diuretic.
• Antimicrobial / infectious disease: Historical use for syphilis and leprosy; in vitro antimicrobial activity documented.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Typical doses of sarsaparilla for a variety of uses range from 0.3 to 2 g/day of the powdered root.

Sarsaparilla is often taken in capsules, 2–4 grams three times per day. A tincture, 2–4 ml three times per day, may also be used.

In the published case report, 425 mg of sarsaparilla root (Smilax officinalis) in non-standardized powdered capsule form was used once daily.

A commonly referenced dose for sarsaparilla capsules is one 500 mg capsule taken 2 to 3 times per day.

Due to limited clinical study data, use of sarsaparilla cannot be recommended for any indication, and clinical trials are lacking to provide guidance on therapeutic dosages.

In the preclinical psoriasis study, 25–50 milligrams of astilbin per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg) was used in mice with psoriasis-like lesions — a dose that cannot be directly extrapolated to human use.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Safety Profile

No major contraindications, warnings, or side effects have been formally documented. Excessive ingestion should be avoided; in unusually high doses, the plant may be harmful, including causing gastrointestinal (GI) irritation.

According to the German Commission E monograph, sarsaparilla may cause stomach irritation and temporary kidney irritation. Sarsaparilla should not be taken during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

The safety profile of sarsaparilla is relatively unknown, given the lack of well-designed clinical studies.

Kidney Concerns

Sarsaparilla might worsen kidney disease. It should be avoided by persons with kidney problems. The German scientific advisory board (Commission E for Herbal Medicines) warns that sarsaparilla may cause temporary kidney problems, including increased urination.

Drug Interactions

Sarsaparilla may increase how much digoxin (Lanoxin) the body absorbs, thereby potentially increasing the effects and side effects of digoxin.

Sarsaparilla may have an effect similar to a diuretic, and taking it might decrease how well the body eliminates lithium, potentially increasing lithium concentrations in the body and resulting in serious side effects.

The saponins have been reported to facilitate the body's absorption of other drugs and phytochemicals, meaning interactions with co-administered medications are theoretically plausible, though systematic interaction data are lacking.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities have been described for extracts of at least one of the species.

Heavy Metal Contamination Risk

Sarsaparilla supplements should be bought from reputable sources, since plants grown in contaminated areas may contain heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and chromium.

Regulatory Status

The FDA has not reviewed sarsaparilla supplements for safety and effectiveness. The FDA considers sarsaparilla to be a natural flavoring substance for use in foods and drinks.

9. Summary of Evidence Strength

The overall evidence base for sarsaparilla's therapeutic uses remains limited. Sarsaparilla has a historical association with treating conditions such as cancer, psoriasis, eczema, and joint pain, stemming from an outdated belief in blood purification. While these uses are well-documented historically, the scientific evidence supporting them remains limited. Some studies suggest potential antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties, yet further research is necessary to validate these claims.

These isolated constituents exhibit a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities; however, studies have been carried out to verify these properties and research directions for future development and utilization of the potential value of Smilax species are still needed. The overwhelming body of evidence remains preclinical — based on cell culture and animal models — with clinical human trials absent or extremely limited for virtually all proposed indications.

References

• ScienceDirect — The genus Smilax L.: A comprehensive review of traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and toxicity (2026)
• PMC / NCBI — Smilax glabra Roxb.: A Review of Its Traditional Usages, Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Properties, and Clinical Applications
• PMC / NCBI — Chemistry, Biosynthesis and Pharmacology of Sarsasapogenin: A Potential Natural Steroid Molecule for New Drug Design, Development and Therapy
• Cancer Prevention Research (AACR) — Sarsaparilla (Smilax glabra Rhizome) Extract Inhibits Cancer Cell Growth by S Phase Arrest, Apoptosis, and Autophagy via Redox-Dependent ERK1/2 Pathway (2015)
• PubMed — Treatment of Psoriatic Arthritis With Acupuncture, Turmeric, Sarsaparilla (Smilax officinalis) and Vitamin D: A Case Report (2020)
• PubMed — Investigation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of the extracts from Smilax ornata Lem. (Jamaican sarsaparilla) (2019)
• PMC / NCBI — Chemical Constituents from the Rhizomes of Smilax glabra and Their Antimicrobial Activity
• Heliyon (Cell Press) — Advances in the chemical constituents, pharmacological activity, and clinical application of Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma (2024)
• IntechOpen — Phenolic Compounds in Genus Smilax (Sarsaparilla)
• Drugs.com Natural Products (Review of Natural Products monograph) — Sarsaparilla Uses, Benefits & Dosage
• RxList — Sarsaparilla: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose & Precautions
• PeaceHealth Health Information Library — Sarsaparilla (including German Commission E monograph reference)
• Wikipedia — Sarsasapogenin
• Wikipedia — Smilax aristolochiifolia
• JSTOR Daily — Plant of the Month: Sarsaparilla
• ResearchGate — Of the China Root: A Case Study of the Early Modern Circulation of Materia Medica
• Herbal Reality — Sarsaparilla: Benefits, Medicinal Uses, Safety
• PubMed — Sarsaparilla (Smilax glabra Rhizome) Extract Activates Redox-Dependent ATM/ATR Pathway to Inhibit Cancer Cell Growth (2017)