magnolia

Magnolia (Magnolia officinalis and Related Species): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical names: The magnolia bark used in herbal medicine is an herbal material obtained from Magnolia officinalis and from other species of the family Magnoliaceae. Among Magnolia species, M. obovata and M. officinalis are the most important in traditional Chinese and Japanese herbal medicine. The genus Magnolia belongs to the family Magnoliaceae, and the common name "magnolia bark" in supplement contexts refers specifically to the dried bark — and sometimes the root bark — of these species.

Common names and designations: In traditional Chinese medicine, magnolia bark is called Houpu and is most commonly taken from two species, Magnolia obovata and Magnolia officinalis. In Japanese medicine, the bark is called wakoboku, derived from M. obovata Thunb.

Plant description: Magnolia bark refers to the bark of the magnolia tree — a native of East and Southeast Asia. This tree belongs to the Magnoliaceae family and can grow to a mature height from 16 ft up to 80 ft, with large and fragrant flowers that often reach 8 inches in diameter. This is one of the oldest species of trees, having evolved before bees appeared; the flowers developed to encourage pollination by beetles.

Plant parts used: Along with the bark, sometimes the flowers and leaves are also used for making medicine. The bark and root bark are the primary parts used in pharmacological preparations and supplement extracts.

Commercial and pharmacopeial designation: The content of magnolol and honokiol in magnolia bark extract (MBE) depends on different factors, including the Magnolia plant species, the area of origin, the part of the plant employed, and the method used to prepare the extract.

2. Common Forms and Preparations

Most of the magnolia bark is used domestically within China, both for making decoctions and patent medicine pills. Crude magnolia bark is exported to Chinese communities abroad that use it in making decoctions, and to Western companies that make Chinese herb products in capsule and tablet form (typically with powdered magnolia or dried extract of magnolia). Magnolia bark from China, Taiwan, and Japan is also used in making Kampo remedies: traditional formulas prepared as dried decoctions (granules), used mainly in Taiwan and Japan, with a portion exported to Western countries.

In the contemporary supplement market, magnolia bark extract is standardized to honokiol and/or magnolol content and is sold in capsule, tablet, powder, chewing gum, and topical formats. Relora is a patented combination extract of Magnolia officinalis bark and Phellodendron amurense that has been used in multiple published clinical trials. Magnolia bark extract is also obtained by CO₂ supercritical fluid extraction, which yields a highly concentrated product used in oral care formulations and cosmetics.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

3.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

Magnolia bark extract has been used for over 1,000 years as a folk medicine in Asia. In traditional Asian medicine, it has been prescribed for treating acute pain, headaches, diarrhea, allergies, asthma, and gynecological disorders. It has also been used to treat fever, anxiety, nervous disorders, depression, muscular pain, abdominal fullness, constipation, and thrombotic stroke. In Chinese and Japanese folk medicine, magnolia bark extract has been used to treat bronchitis and emphysema.

The first recorded mention of the herb was made in the ancient Chinese herb guide Shennong Bencao Jing around 100 A.D., where it was said to treat "fright qi" — a condition caused by emotional distress due to fear and anxiety.

During the 7th century, monks in Chinese Buddhist temples grew these trees in their gardens for use in treating conditions like depression, asthma, muscle pain, and headache. It was also valued in TCM for its ability to reduce inflammation, anxiety, and bloating.

The Chinese name for the herb is Houpu, and it has been used in traditional formulas such as Banxia Houpu Tang (半夏厚朴湯), Xiao Zhengai Tang, Ping Wei San (平胃散), and Shenmi Tang.

3.2 Japanese Traditional Medicine (Kampo)

Within Kampo, or traditional Japanese medicine, magnolia bark's main role was that of a digestive supplement. In Japan, both prescriptions containing magnolia bark, Hange-koboku-to and Sai-boku-to, are still in use in modern clinical practice. Honokiol is the bioactive principle isolated from the bark of Magnolia obovata Thunb., Magnoliaceae, and other Magnolia species used in Japanese and Chinese traditional medicine.

3.3 Korean Traditional Medicine

Extracts from the bark and seed cones of magnolia trees have been traditionally used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese medicine as analgesics and treatments for anxiety and mood disorders.

3.4 Western History

Magnolia's "stimulant" and "tonic" benefits were included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 through 1894. It also has a place in Native American medicine as an antimalarial.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

4.1 Primary Neolignans: Magnolol and Honokiol

The active ingredients in magnolia bark extracts have been identified as the biphenolic isomers magnolol and honokiol. Magnolia officinalis and Magnolia obovata bark extracts have been used for thousands of years and are still widely employed as herbal preparations for their sedative, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, and antispastic effects. Neolignans, particularly magnolol and honokiol, are the main substances responsible for the beneficial properties of the magnolia bark extract.

Magnolol (MN) and honokiol (HK) are the most widely studied bioactive substances in the neolignans of Magnolia officinalis. Chemically, honokiol is a small, hydrophobic neolignan biphenol structurally similar to propofol that can be purified efficiently from its isomer magnolol using advanced chromatography techniques such as magnolol acetonide protection followed by flash chromatography or high-capacity high-speed countercurrent chromatography.

Magnolol and honokiol are the two major secondary metabolites found in the ethanolic extracts of Chinese M. officinalis at concentrations of 1.25% and 1.81%, respectively. Neolignans such as honokiol (17–96.5 mg/g) and magnolol (21.3–91.9 mg/g) have been shown to be the main constituents of M. officinalis.

4.2 Other Constituents

M. officinalis contains a diverse group of biologically active compounds, including magnolol, honokiol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, obovatol, and other neolignan compounds. Honokiol has been identified as one of the chemical compounds in some traditional Eastern herbal medicines, along with magnolol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, and obovatol.

5. Mechanisms of Action

5.1 GABA-A Receptor Modulation

Extracts from the tree bark of magnolia species have been used for centuries to treat a variety of neurological diseases, including anxiety, depression, and seizures. The active ingredients have been identified as the biphenolic isomers magnolol and honokiol, which were shown to enhance the activity of GABA-A receptors, consistent with their biological effects.

Anxiolytic effects of honokiol are attributed to its selective stimulation of GABA-A receptors or its binding to anxiety-related sites. Research demonstrated that honokiol acts as a positive allosteric modulator at the benzodiazepine binding site with subunit selectivity, providing anxiolytic effects. In animal studies, the benzodiazepine-blocking drug flumazenil reversed magnolol's effects, confirming that it works through this specific receptor pathway.

5.2 Serotonergic and Dopaminergic Interactions

Interactions have been demonstrated with the adenosine A(1) receptor, dopamine transporter and dopamine D(5) receptor (antagonist activity), and serotonin receptors (5-HT(1B) and 5-HT(6) antagonist activity), consistent with the traditional anxiolytic and sleep-inducing activities of Magnolia officinalis bark.

5.3 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Honokiol inhibited several signal transduction cascades (e.g., protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear transcription factor kappa-B) involved with regulating inflammatory mediator and gene expression. In THP-1 cells, magnolol and honokiol reduced inflammatory TNF-α and IL-8 production induced by Propionibacterium acnes. Other anti-inflammatory markers reduced by magnolia bark extract include IL-6 as well as MMP2 and MMP9.

5.4 Antioxidant Activity

Magnolol and honokiol inhibited oxygen consumption and malondialdehyde production by lipid peroxidation with a 1,000-times higher efficacy than α-tocopherol. In vitro and animal studies document potent antioxidant activity for magnolol and honokiol in protecting against myocardial and cerebral ischemia by inhibiting neutrophil activation and related oxidative cascades.

5.5 Blood-Brain Barrier Penetration

Honokiol, a compound with a spicy odor extracted from various Magnolia species, can readily cross the blood-brain and cerebrospinal fluid barriers, making it a highly bioavailable and potentially effective therapeutic agent. Magnolol is also able to cross the blood-brain barrier, as documented by pharmacokinetic studies in rats.

5.6 Antidiabetic Mechanisms

Antihyperglycemic effects of magnolia bark extract are attributed to the inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatase enzyme 1B, a negative regulator of the insulin signaling pathway, which increases ERK phosphorylation and GLUT4 translocation. Magnolol increased both insulin-stimulated glucose transport and production of GLUT1 and GLUT4 mRNA, and GLUT4 protein.

5.7 Antimicrobial Mechanisms

Magnolol and honokiol have been known to exhibit potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi such as Propionibacterium sp. and S. aureus, showing their potential as antimicrobial agents effective against more infectious resistant microorganisms.

5.8 Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

Honokiol inhibited several human breast cancer cell lines, as well as drug-resistant breast cancer cell lines. The mechanism involved inhibition of cell proliferation, induced cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Magnolol demonstrated preclinical activity against a variety of cancers, including bladder, prostate, colorectal, breast, and lung cancers.

5.9 Antiparasitic Mechanisms

Honokiol and magnolol from Magnolia officinalis exhibit potent effects against Ascaris suum larvae, with EC50 values of 8.128 μM and 11.08 μM, respectively. RNA-seq analysis on Caenorhabditis elegans and functional assays of mitochondrial membrane potential confirmed that the primary mechanism of action of these two compounds is the inhibition of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC).

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

6.1 Anxiety and Stress

Preclinical evidence: Honokiol and magnolol have been identified as neurologically active agents, with anxiolytic, sedative, neuroprotective, and anti-convulsant actions in animal models. A combination of honokiol and magnolol normalized biochemical abnormalities in brain 5-HT and 5-HIAA, serum corticosterone levels, and platelet adenylyl cyclase activity — a biomarker for depression — in chronically stressed rodents.

Human clinical evidence: In a published pilot trial, Relora was effective, in comparison to placebo, in reducing temporary, transitory anxiety as measured by the Spielberger STATE anxiety questionnaire. It was not effective in reducing long-standing feelings of anxiety or depression as measured using the Spielberger TRAIT questionnaire. Other assessments — including salivary cortisol and amylase levels, appetite, body morphology, and sleep quality/latency — were not significantly changed by Relora in comparison to placebo. This pilot study indicates that Relora may offer some relief for premenopausal women experiencing mild transitory anxiety.

A separate study used 500 mg/day (standardized to not less than 1.5% honokiol) at breakfast and dinner, in a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind design. Sixty subjects were randomized to receive supplement or look-alike placebo for 4 weeks, with 56 subjects completing the study. This study (Talbott et al., 2013) showed that the Relora combination (Magnolia + Phellodendron, 750 mg/day) significantly reduced salivary cortisol, perceived stress, tension, and anger in moderately stressed adults compared to placebo.

Evidence strength: Scientific literature contains relatively few clinical trials on magnolia bark performed on human subjects. Most literature sources are from Japanese and Chinese foreign-language publications, and clinical studies on the efficacy of magnolia bark extract are limited. Documentation on the materials and extracts for several studies is also limited. The existing human trials that are published are generally small, short-duration, and use combination products (most commonly with Phellodendron), making it impossible to attribute effects solely to magnolia bark. Evidence is preliminary.

6.2 Sleep

Preclinical evidence: Animal studies demonstrate sedative and sleep-modulating effects consistent with the GABA-A modulation described above. Magnolia officinalis bark and Ziziphus spinosa seed have a history of use in traditional Asian medicine for mild anxiety, nervousness, and sleep-related problems, and receptor interactions are consistent with this traditional use.

Human clinical evidence: In a randomized, multicenter, controlled clinical study of 634 menopausal women (mean age of 53 years), researchers compared daily oral supplementation of "Estromineral Serena" (which included 60 milligrams of magnolia bark extract, along with isoflavones, lactobacilli, calcium, vitamin D3, and magnesium) against a control formula lacking the magnolia extract over 12 weeks. Both groups experienced relief from classic vasomotor symptoms like hot flashes and night sweats; however, the group receiving the magnolia-enriched formula showed greater improvements in insomnia, irritability, anxiety, depressed mood, asthenia, and loss of libido.

Evidence strength: The sleep evidence from human trials relies primarily on combination products, and the specific contribution of magnolia bark extract to sleep outcomes is difficult to isolate. Evidence is preliminary and heterogeneous.

6.3 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function

Preclinical evidence: M. officinalis-derived neolignans (honokiol, magnolol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, and obovatol) alleviated behavioral abnormalities, including learning and cognitive impairments, in Alzheimer's disease animal models. Mechanistically, neolignans inhibited Aβ generation or aggregation, neuroinflammation, and acetylcholinesterase activity; promoted microglial phagocytosis and anti-oxidative stress; alleviated mitochondrial dysfunction and energy metabolism; and regulated intestinal flora.

Oral honokiol (1 mg/kg) and magnolol (10 mg/kg) prevented the age-related memory and learning deficits found in senescence-accelerated mice by preserving cholinergic neurons and enhancing phosphorylation and activity of Akt, a member of the pro-survival pathway. Only honokiol and magnolol, among nine studied compounds from Chinese herbs, significantly decreased Aβ-induced cell death. Their neuroprotective effects are possibly mediated through reduced ROS production as well as suppression of intracellular calcium elevation and inhibition of caspase-3 activity.

The key bioactive ingredients of neolignans, magnolol and honokiol, were proved to prevent and treat neurological diseases and psychiatric disorders by protecting nerve cells and brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs). Furthermore, neolignans played a role in protecting nerve cells via regulation of neuronal function and suppression of neurotoxicity.

Evidence strength: All neuroprotective evidence is currently preclinical — animal models and cell cultures. Research to date summarizes pre-clinical studies up to 2024; no human clinical trials on cognition or Alzheimer's prevention have been reported. Evidence is preliminary and hypothesis-generating only.

6.4 Pain and Inflammation

Preclinical evidence: Honokiol and magnolol blocked glutamate-, substance P-, and PGE₂-induced inflammatory pain with similar potency and efficacy. Honokiol and magnolol also significantly decreased glutamate-induced c-Fos protein expression in superficial laminae of the lumbar dorsal horn.

Oral administration of a magnolia officinalis extract (MOE) at 30 mg/kg produced an antiallodynic effect in spared nerve injury (SNI) mice in the absence of locomotor impairment, and reduced spinal p-p38, p-JNK1, iNOS, p-p65, IL-1β, and Nrf2 overexpression.

Evidence strength: Evidence is limited to animal and in vitro studies. No controlled human clinical trials specifically on pain or neuropathic pain have been published with magnolia bark as the primary intervention.

6.5 Oral Health

Evidence: This is one of the areas with the most direct human trial evidence. A crossover, placebo-controlled clinical trial, performed on twenty participants aged 18 to 35 years, examined the effect of a Magnolia grandiflora bark mouthwash on the prevalence of Streptococcus mutans in dental plaque. The findings showed that the mouthwash made from the magnolia bark extract has the ability to inhibit the growth of S. mutans in two groups of individuals with moderate and poor oral health status, and a comparison of the magnolia mouthwash with the placebo showed a significant difference in terms of growth inhibition of S. mutans (P<0.005).

Paired t-tests demonstrated significant differences between the placebo and a gum containing MBE (0.4%) plus lauramide arginine ethyl ester (LAE) (0.5%) with respect to % plaque coverage (36.3% vs. 34.0%) and area of plaque fluorescence (109.4 mm² vs. 75.2 mm²). These findings were supported by microbiological counts of total salivary bacteria and Streptococcus spp., with MBE (0.4%) + LAE (0.5%) delivered by chewing gum having a moderate inhibitory effect on plaque formation and salivary bacteria.

Magnolia bark extract was also shown to have an antimicrobial effect on the critical pathogens of periodontal disease such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, and Prevotella intermedia.

Among six included studies in one systematic review, four reported statistically significant effects with a reduction in the scores of the conditions measured from the baseline scores. Two of these studies that used MBE+LAE and MBE+Xylitol reported a reduction in plaque index, mutans streptococci concentration, and dental plaque index from baseline scores.

Evidence strength: The oral health application has the highest density of direct human clinical evidence, though most trials are small and short-term. The anti-caries and anti-gingivitis evidence is consistent across multiple study designs and thus considered more substantiated than most other proposed uses, though large definitive trials are still lacking.

6.6 Menopausal Symptoms

In a randomized, multicenter, controlled clinical study of 634 menopausal women (mean age of 53 years), researchers compared daily oral supplementation of a formula including 60 milligrams of magnolia bark extract against a control formula lacking the magnolia extract over 12 weeks. Both groups experienced relief from vasomotor symptoms like hot flashes and night sweats; however, the group receiving the magnolia-enriched formula showed greater improvements in insomnia, irritability, anxiety, depressed mood, asthenia, and loss of libido.

A small, randomized, controlled study also treated patients with one 60 mg tablet of MBE daily to help relieve menopausal symptoms. The supplement reduced evening cortisol levels and may have improved systolic blood pressure as well as perceived stress.

Evidence strength: The menopausal trials are more powered than most other magnolia clinical studies, but the 634-woman trial used a multi-ingredient product. Isolating magnolia's specific contribution remains impossible. Evidence is suggestive but not conclusive.

6.7 Weight and Cortisol Management

In a small trial on 28 women with eating disorders caused by stress, a dietary supplement with magnolia bark and Phellodendron extract helped prevent weight gain by reducing cortisol levels and perceived stress. In another trial on 26 premenopausal women aged 20 to 50, the same supplement relieved mild transitory but not long-standing anxiety or depression.

An earlier pilot trial in stress-eating, overweight premenopausal women reported modest benefits on weight maintenance while on a magnolia-berberine blend, likely mediated by better stress control rather than direct metabolic effects. Results were preliminary and not consistently replicated.

Evidence strength: Evidence is preliminary and limited to small, short-duration studies of a combination product. Magnolia bark should not be characterized as a weight-loss supplement based on available evidence.

6.8 Diabetes and Blood Glucose

Magnolia bark extract and its active compounds lowered blood sugar in the lab, but human studies are needed. In vitro and animal studies document potential efficacy as an antidiabetic agent, but no adequate controlled human trials have been published. Evidence is in vitro and preclinical only.

6.9 Cancer

Lab studies suggest magnolia bark extract has anticancer properties, but clinical trials are needed to confirm these effects. The anticancer studies of honokiol have been extended to several different solid tumor types such as breast, prostate, gastric, and ovarian cancer, with potential to enhance current anticancer regimens. Honokiol alone inhibited the growth of human lung cancer A549 in lung carcinoma models, and when combined with cisplatin, enhanced antitumor efficacy by increasing apoptosis and inhibition of angiogenesis.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical. All anticancer data are from cell cultures and animal models. No human clinical trials have been conducted. These findings should not be interpreted as evidence of clinical anticancer efficacy.

7. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Central nervous system: Anxiolytic, sedative, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective effects — primarily demonstrated in animal and in vitro models; some preliminary human evidence for anxiety and mood.
• Endocrine system: Modulation of cortisol levels, with some supporting human evidence from combination-product trials.
• Oral cavity: Antimicrobial activity against S. mutans, periodontal pathogens, and oral malodor bacteria — supported by multiple small human trials.
• Gastrointestinal system: Pharmacological activities of magnolol and honokiol include gastrointestinal protection, used historically for abdominal fullness, constipation, and diarrhea.
• Cardiovascular system: Magnolol prevented hypotension, bradycardia, and multiple organ failure induced by lipopolysaccharide in rats — preclinical evidence only.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Broad anti-inflammatory activity through multiple cytokine pathways, demonstrated in cell and animal studies.
• Metabolic system: Antidiabetic mechanisms in vitro; very limited human evidence for cortisol-mediated weight effects.
• Oncology: Antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activity across multiple cancer cell lines — preclinical only.
• Reproductive/menopausal system: Some clinical evidence from combination-product trials in menopausal women for psychological symptom relief.

8. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

MBE is commercially available in the United States and throughout Europe. Dosage varies depending on the condition treated, with weight loss products containing MBE available mostly in powder form.

The following dosages are those reported specifically in clinical studies and monographs:

• Relora® standardized product used in a key stress trial: 500 mg/day administered as 250 mg at breakfast and 250 mg at dinner, standardized to "not less than 1.5% honokiol and 0.1% berberine," for 4 weeks.
• In the pilot anxiety/stress study, the intervention was Relora (250 mg capsules) or identical placebo 3 times daily for 6 weeks.
• In a small, randomized, controlled study for menopausal symptoms, patients received one 60 mg tablet of MBE daily.
• The multicenter menopausal study used a formula including 60 milligrams of magnolia bark extract (as part of a multicomponent product) over 12 weeks.
• Dosing recommendations for the Relora proprietary blend include taking a 300 mg capsule 2 to 3 times per day.
• Chewing gum formulations used in oral health trials contained magnolia bark extract at 0.4% concentration combined with lauramide arginine ethyl ester (LAE) at 0.5%.

No standardized dosage guidelines from major pharmacopeias or regulatory bodies (WHO, EMA, USP) for magnolia bark as a stand-alone supplement have been published.

9. Safety Considerations and Interactions

9.1 General Safety Profile

Magnolia officinalis and Magnolia obovata bark extracts have been used for thousands of years in Chinese and Japanese traditional medicines and are still widely employed as herbal preparations. Neolignans, particularly magnolol and honokiol, are the main substances responsible for the beneficial properties of the magnolia bark extract.

Despite potential cytotoxicity in vitro, studies have demonstrated the safety of the M. officinalis extract when administered orally in rodents. In a 21-day study, rats were fed diets containing M. officinalis extract at doses of up to 480 mg/kg body weight per day, with no significant weight loss or pathological changes observed.

In the published pilot clinical trial of Relora, there were no safety concerns or significant adverse events observed. No significant adverse events were observed in another published trial.

9.2 Adverse Effects Reported in Clinical Settings

No dermatologic adverse effects were documented with topical application of magnolol and honokiol; however, several cases of allergic dermatitis have been documented in case reports. In one small clinical trial, a patient dropped out because of adverse reactions including heartburn, shaking hands, perilabial numbness, sexual dysfunction, and thyroid dysfunction. Some sources document case reports of progressive interstitial renal fibrosis in patients consuming an herbal blend containing M. officinalis.

9.3 Pregnancy and Lactation

Taking magnolia flower bud by mouth is reported to be unsafe during pregnancy, as magnolia might cause the uterus to contract, which could cause a miscarriage. There is not enough reliable information to know if magnolia bark is safe to use during pregnancy. Avoid use during pregnancy and lactation because of limited clinical data.

9.4 Surgery

There is a concern that magnolia might slow down the nervous system too much when combined with anesthesia and other medications used during and after surgery. Magnolia might also slow blood clotting and cause bleeding during and after surgery. Stopping magnolia use at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery is recommended.

9.5 Drug Interactions

Taking magnolia bark along with drugs that promote sleep or treat anxiety, such as sedatives, sleep medications, and barbiturates, may cause drowsiness, which can make it unsafe to drive a vehicle or use heavy machinery.

Taking magnolia bark with blood thinners, including aspirin, is not recommended, as it may increase the risk of bleeding.

The inhibition of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) by magnolol may be a potential mechanism that enhances the toxicity of drugs or other active compounds. Inhibition of these enzymes slows the clearance of drugs, thus raising their blood and tissue levels, potentially causing toxic or even adverse effects.

The broad bioactivity of honokiol and magnolol could raise concerns about off-target effects. Despite a relatively quick clearance, an interaction with pharmaceutical active principles or other herbal constituents cannot be excluded.

9.6 Dependence and Abuse Potential

M. officinalis-based products have recently gained popularity as sedatives on the basis of the ability of magnolol and honokiol to exert GABA-ergic and cannabimimetic activities. However, no peer-reviewed papers proving the abuse, misuse, or dependence on or addiction to magnolia-based products have been published.

9.7 Allergic Contact Dermatitis

For magnolia bark extract, allergic contact dermatitis has been reported in the context of cosmetic products. A published case report documented vulvar allergic contact dermatitis caused by Magnolia officinalis bark extract (Amat-Samaranch V, et al., Contact Dermatitis, 2022).

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