Spikenard

Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Taxonomic Identity

Nardostachys is a genus of flowering plant in the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae), and Nardostachys jatamansi is the sole species in the genus. Historically, the plant was also placed in the family Valerianaceae, and some older literature employs the synonym Valeriana jatamansi, though this designation caused significant taxonomic confusion and Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC. is the currently accepted name. The name Valeriana jatamansi, later named Valeriana wallichii DC., was used for both 'jatamansi' and 'spikenard,' creating considerable nomenclatural ambiguity.

It is also called spikenard, nard, nardin, or muskroot. In India, it is known as 'jatamansi, tapaswani, balchara, bhutijata, jatamaschi, manshi, and bhytajata.' The Sanskrit name Jatamansi is etymologically descriptive: due to its thick roots and many fibrous hairs (jata in Sanskrit, meaning dreadlocks), and manasi indicating human, the plant's name reflects its hairy, matted rhizome structure.

Physical Description and Habitat

N. jatamansi is a perennial that grows in the Himalayas, primarily in a belt through Kumaon, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan at elevations of 3,000–5,000 m (9,800–16,400 ft), and in northern Myanmar and western and central China. The plant grows 10–50 cm (4–20 in) in height and has pink, bell-shaped flowers. The leaves are simple, oblong to ovate.

It is a source of a type of intensely aromatic amber-colored essential oil; this oil has, since ancient times, been used as a perfume, as a traditional medicine, and in religious ceremonies. The rhizomes (underground stems) can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic amber-colored essential oil, which is very thick in consistency.

Conservation Status

The plant is considered endangered due to overharvesting for folk medicine, overgrazing, loss of habitats, and forest degradation. In 2015, spikenard was classed as "critically endangered" by the IUCN. In 1994, concerns were expressed about over-exploitation of the species, and it has been listed as "endangered" by CITES since 1997; this initially referred only to whole and sliced roots and their parts, but in 2007 the revised definition included the essential oil. Due to overharvesting for medicinal and commercial purposes, habitat degradation, and climate change, Nardostachys jatamansi is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List (2021 assessment), with an inferred decline of at least 80% over the past three generations.

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

Spikenard extract, usually derived from the roots and rhizomes of Nardostachys jatamansi, is sold worldwide in capsules, tinctures, and essential oil, often marketed for stress relief, sleep support, mood balance, and brain health. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation of dried rhizomes and roots, with a yield of approximately 1–2%. The root is dried and sometimes ground before distillation, with commercial supplies typically sourced from Nepal and Bhutan at 3,000–5,000 meters altitude. Modern supplements usually use an alcohol or hydro-alcoholic extract of the dried roots and rhizomes, standardized to key sesquiterpenes.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient and Classical World

The medicinal use of N. jatamansi is well-recognized in Bhutanese, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, Nepalese, and Tibetan medicine. Moreover, its medicinal properties are well established in traditional medicines including Ayurveda, Ben-Cao-Shi-Yi, Homer's Iliad, the Old Testament, as well as in conventional systems. One of the earliest recorded references to spikenard dates back to Ancient Egypt, where it was used in embalming and as a perfume. In ancient Rome and Greece, spikenard was included in luxurious perfumes and medicinal balms, frequently used for its purported anti-inflammatory and rejuvenating effects.

Ayurvedic Tradition

In Ayurveda and the traditional system of medicine, the species is used as a stimulant, sedative, brain tonic or mind rejuvenator, antidiabetic, cardio tonic, and in the treatment of various neurological disorders such as insomnia, epilepsy, hysteria, anxiety, and depression, with a history of use dating back to the Vedic ages (1000–800 BC). Jatamansi is mentioned in the ancient Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita (circa 300 BCE) as one of the herbs in the medhya rasayana group — brain-enhancing herbs. It is considered a Sattvic herb in Ayurveda and is now commercially marketed either as single or poly-herbal formulations.

In Ayurvedic medicine, jatamansi holds a distinguished position as a medhya rasayana (brain tonic), used for anxiety, insomnia, and mental clarity. In Ayurveda, the rhizomes of jatamansi are utilized mostly as an anticonvulsant and anti-stress agent. The rhizomes have been used in the Ayurvedic system as a bitter tonic, diuretic, stimulant, and antispasmodic, as well as to treat hysteria, convulsions, and epilepsy. Other Ayurvedic applications of the root extract have included treatment of kidney stones, jaundice, nervous convulsive conditions, heart palpitations, headache, flatulence, respiratory and digestive diseases, skin diseases, gastric disorders, and seminal debility, and for removal of blood impurities.

In Ayurveda, spikenard is classified as a "medhya" herb, meaning it supports cognitive function and mental clarity. It has traditionally been used for sleep and digestive support, often in the form of pastes or infused oils. In Ayurvedic classification, the plant is described as having the following qualities: Rasa (Taste): Tikta (bitter) and Kashaya (astringent); Virya (Potency): Sheeta (cold); Vipaka (Post-digestive effect): Madhura (sweet).

Unani and Tibetan Medicine

In the Unani medical system, deobstruent, exhilarant, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, anticonvulsant, antiparkinsonism, antioxidant, sedative, antihypertensive, antidepressant, and antidiabetic activities of N. jatamansi have been described. The roots of Nardostachys jatamansi are also utilized in traditional Unani medicine for the treatment of various ailments, including hepatitis, inflammation, and obstructions. The oil is additionally used in traditional Tibetan medicine, with this medicinal tradition extending back over 3,000 years in South Asian texts.

Religious and Cultural Significance

Spikenard may have been used as an ingredient in the incense known as spikenard in classical times, although lavender has also been suggested as a candidate for the spikenard of classical texts. The oil has, since ancient times, been used as a perfume, as a traditional medicine, and in religious ceremonies.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Volatile (Essential Oil) Fraction

Chemical studies on the plant's rhizomes and roots have been conducted because they can be used to make medicines. Nardostachys jatamansi contains both volatile and non-volatile components. Sesquiterpenes make up the majority of the volatile compounds, whilst the non-volatile extracts' main constituents are sesquiterpenes, coumarins, lignans, neolignans, and alkaloids.

Sesquiterpene is the major component of N. jatamansi, and these also include jatamansone and nardostachone. Additional compounds produced from the essential oils of N. jatamansi include angelecin, beta-sitosterol, beta-eudesmol, jatamansinol, alpha-patchoulense, beta-patchoulense, jatamansin, nardostachnol, and two terpenic coumarins (orosenol and jatamansin). Besides sesquiterpenes, the essential oils of the roots and rhizomes contain proteins, carbohydrates, saponins, steroids, tannins, flavonoids, and phenolics.

Non-Volatile Fraction

The 70% ethanolic extract of Nardostachys jatamansi has been shown by RP-HPLC to contain polyphenols and flavonoids including gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, homovanillin, epicatechin, rutin hydrate, and quercetin-3-rhamnoside, whereas hexane extract revealed an array of metabolites including fatty acids, sesquiterpenes, alkane hydrocarbons, and esters by GC-MS analysis.

Additional identified constituents include ursolic acid, acacetin, kanshone A, octacosanol, nardosinone, nardosinonediol, aristolen-9β-ol, oleanolic acid, and β-sitosterol, as well as nardal, jatamansic acid, jatamol A & B, spirojatamol, terpenoids, neolignans, taraxerone, valeranone, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, and protocatechuic acid. An alkaloid named actinidine has also been reported.

Principal Bioactive Compound: Jatamansone

The essential oil is dominated by jatamansone (valeranone), patchoulol, and isovaleric acid. Jatamansone (also spelled jatamansone or valeranone) is the sesquiterpene ketone most extensively studied for pharmacological activity. Animal and clinical research with jatamansone, the active principle of the plant, has justified the hypno-sedative claim of Ayurveda. Jatamansone has been linked to anti-hypertensive, anti-arrhythmic, anti-asthmatic, nematicidal, and antibacterial effects, in addition to its CNS activities.

Nardosinone

Known in traditional Chinese medicine as Gansong, N. jatamansi has been employed historically in the management of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Nardosinone (Nar), a sesquiterpenoid compound, has been identified as one of the principal bioactive constituents of N. jatamansi. A 2025 PMC study investigated the neuroprotective effects of nardosinone and a N. jatamansi ethyl acetate extract in both in vitro and in vivo models, finding that these constituents highlight promising neuroprotective strategies: the modulation of glucose metabolic reprogramming to facilitate M1-to-M2 phenotypic transition, and the inhibition of T cell infiltration.

4. Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Spikenard is rich in sesquiterpenes (such as jatamansone, nardostachone, and related compounds), essential oils, fatty alcohols, and other phytochemicals. These molecules appear to act on multiple targets rather than a single receptor or pathway — a "multi-target" profile typical of many traditional botanicals.

• GABAergic modulation: Jatamansone (valeranone), a sesquiterpene ketone, has been linked to GABA receptor modulation, explaining its anxiolytic and sedative actions in rodent models.
• Antioxidant and neuroprotective action: Treatment of neuronal disorders with N. jatamansi plant extract significantly decreases lipid peroxidation and significantly increases antioxidants in the brain, suggesting a possible antioxidant role in overcoming behavioral and neurochemical changes during oxidative stress.
• Cholinergic activity: The plant's extracts have been shown to enhance acetylcholinesterase inhibition, indicating potential for cognitive improvement and nootropic effects.
• Sedative (vapor) mechanism: A study published in the Journal of Natural Medicines identified (+)-calarene as a key component responsible for the sedative effects observed during vapor inhalation.
• Anticonvulsant mechanism: Ethanolic extract of the roots of N. jatamansi was studied for anticonvulsant activity. The results showed a significant increase in seizure threshold against the maximal electroshock seizure model, as indicated by a decrease in the extension/flexion ratio. However, the extract was ineffective against pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures.
• Neurotransmitter modulation: Extracts of spikenard appear to influence levels and signaling of serotonin, GABA, and dopamine in brain tissue.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Central Nervous System: Anxiolytic and Sedative Effects

The significant pharmacological effect of N. jatamansi is on the central nervous system, where diverse actions ranging from sedative to nootropic have been reported. Animal and clinical research with jatamansone, the active principle of the plant, has justified the hypno-sedative claim of Ayurveda.

A randomized controlled double-blind clinical trial compared the efficacy of N. jatamansi with imipramine for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). This double-blind randomized controlled clinical study involved two groups with 38 subjects each. Various preclinical and clinical studies had previously demonstrated anxiolytic activity of jatamansi, forming the basis for this trial. The evidence base for anxiolytic effects is considered preliminary; larger and longer randomized controlled trials with validated instruments and active or placebo comparators are needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.

5.2 Sleep and Insomnia

Nardostachys jatamansi is classified as hypno-sedative in Ayurveda and is used in the treatment of insomnia, hysteria, and depressive illness. N. jatamansi powdered rhizome at a dose of 4 g with milk 3 times a day after food for 1 month was used in a small study evaluating effects on primary insomnia. Small human studies using powdered rhizome noted improvements in sleep induction and duration; animal research reinforces its relaxing effects for restlessness and anxiety-related conditions. The human evidence base in this area is limited to small, typically open-label or low-powered trials, and findings are considered preliminary.

5.3 Hypertension and Cardiovascular Effects

In a small 4-week study, an N. jatamansi dosage of 3 g/day (i.e., one 1 g capsule 3 times a day) was used to evaluate potential blood pressure–lowering effects in patients with hypertension. Pharmacological research has also demonstrated marked hypotensive, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-ischemic, and antiarrhythmic activities. The vasodilator, bronchodilator, spasmolytic, and platelet aggregation inhibition activities of the plant have also been reported. Evidence in this area is based largely on animal models and small clinical studies; robust randomized controlled trials are absent.

5.4 Hepatoprotective Effects

Jatamansi possesses hepatoprotective activity, along with antifungal, antibacterial, cardioprotective, hypolipidemic, antidepressant, antioxidant, neuroprotective, antiparkinson, anticonvulsant, antihyperglycemic, nootropic, anticancer, and radioprotective activities, as reported in the literature. Animal model studies (including thioacetamide-induced liver damage models) have evaluated hepatoprotective effects, but as with other areas, human clinical trial data are lacking.

5.5 Cardioprotective Effects

A PMC-published study examined the protective action of jatamansi against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. The study aimed to investigate the protective action of jatamansi against doxorubicin cardiotoxicity; methanolic extract of jatamansi was prepared and standardized using HPTLC fingerprinting, GC-MS chemoprofiling, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity in vitro, with further in vivo activity evaluated using a rodent model. Jatamansone, a key sesquiterpene, demonstrates significant hepatoprotective and cardioprotective activities in animal models; a dose of 800 mg/kg for hepatoprotection and 500 mg/kg for cardioprotection was effective in rat studies. These findings are entirely preclinical (animal/in vitro) and cannot be extrapolated to human clinical recommendations.

5.6 Neuroprotective and Cognitive Effects

Research in Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior suggested that an extract of N. jatamansi could be beneficial in models of Parkinsonism, highlighting its potential to protect nerve cells. A 2025 study published in Cells (PMC) investigated neuroprotection via suppression of glucose metabolic reprogramming: this study investigated the effects of ethyl acetate extract (NJ-1A) from N. jatamansi and its active constituent nardosinone on neuroinflammatory mediator release, glucose metabolic reprogramming, and T cell migration using both in vitro and in vivo experimental models. Animal and in vitro studies on learning and memory consistently suggest benefit, but these data do not constitute clinical evidence for humans. The scientific literature contains primarily phytochemical and animal studies of N. jatamansi's activity on the nervous system and the cardiovascular system; clinical trial data are lacking to recommend use for any specific indication.

5.7 Antioxidant Activity

Antioxidant assays showed the enhanced potency of the 70% ethanolic extract of N. jatamansi, with an IC₅₀ value of 222.22 ± 7.4 μg/mL for DPPH, 13.90 ± 0.5 μg/mL for ABTS, 113.81 ± 4.2 μg/mL for superoxide, 948 ± 21.1 μg/mL for metal chelating, and 12.3 ± 0.43 mg FeSO₄ equivalent/g of extract for ferric reducing antioxidant power assays, and was more potent than the hexane extract. These results are all in vitro and their relevance to human health has not been established through clinical trials.

5.8 Anticonvulsant Effects

Pre-treatment of rats with phenytoin at doses of 12.5, 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg in combination with 50 mg/kg of N. jatamansi root extract resulted in a significant increase in the protective index of phenytoin from 3.62 to 13.17, and dose-response studies demonstrated synergistic action of both drugs. This finding has potential implications for drug interactions with antiepileptic medications, though it has been studied only in rodent models to date.

5.9 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

The essential oil obtained from the roots shows various pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, antifungal, hypotensive, anti-arrhythmic, and anticonvulsant activity. These findings are based on in vitro microbiological assays and do not constitute clinical evidence.

5.10 Antidepressant Activity

The plant Nardostachys jatamansi is regarded as a well-known antidepressant plant in traditional medicine. Because N. jatamansi contains many different compounds, a network-based systems pharmacology approach has been used to identify its mechanisms of antidepressant action. Human data are still limited, but small clinical trials hint at benefits for mood symptoms and premenstrual complaints. This area of evidence remains preliminary and is not supported by large, controlled clinical trials.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the documented traditional use and reported pharmacological research, N. jatamansi is associated with the following body systems and health domains:

• Nervous System: Jatamansi has been traditionally used in treatment of a wide range of disorders, including those of the digestive system, circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory system, urinary system, reproductive system, and skin. CNS use includes anxiety, insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy, and cognitive function.
• Cardiovascular System: It exhibits cardioprotective activity and is used in the treatment of neural diseases. Reported activities include hypotensive, anti-arrhythmic, hypolipidemic, and vasodilatory effects — all documented primarily in animal models.
• Hepatic System: Hepatoprotective effects have been demonstrated in animal studies involving chemically induced liver damage models.
• Reproductive System: Traditional systems such as Ayurveda classify it as a cooling, calming, and "mind-supporting" herb used for insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, palpitations, digestive complaints, and menstrual problems.
• Skin and Hair: The rhizome of jatamansi is used as an aromatic adjunct in the preparation of medicinal oils, to promote hair growth and blackness. The essential oil extracted from the rhizomes is widely utilized in the market for hair treatment.
• Metabolic System: Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects have been reported in animal-based studies.

7. Reported Dosages

The following dosages appear in the clinical or traditional literature and are reported strictly as stated in source materials, not as recommendations:

• Hypertension (small clinical study): 3 g/day (one 1 g capsule 3 times a day) for 4 weeks.
• Insomnia (small clinical study): N. jatamansi powdered rhizome at a dose of 4 g with milk 3 times a day after food for 1 month.
• Traditional Ayurvedic tablet form: Jatamansi Ghanvati is given in a dose of 1/2–1 tablet once or twice a day in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
• Traditional menstrual application: For menstrual induction, a traditional dose of half a gram of powder two times a day from seven days before menstruation has been described.

The scientific literature contains primarily phytochemical and animal studies of N. jatamansi's activity; clinical trial data are lacking to recommend use for any indication. No standardized, evidence-based dosing regimen has been established through adequately powered clinical trials.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Pregnancy and Lactation

Pregnant and lactating women should not consume jatamansi and its products, as it induces menstrual discharge. Spikenard is strongly contraindicated during pregnancy.

Overdose and Adverse Effects

Signs of jatamansi overdose documented in Ayurvedic literature include abdominal cramps, loose motion (diarrhea), dizziness, vomiting, excess sleepiness, altered mood, and irritability. Consuming jatamansi in excess may cause adverse effects on the body; as it has laxative properties, consuming in large quantities may cause loose stool, nausea, and vomiting.

Drug Interactions

Because of its mild sedative and blood pressure–lowering actions, spikenard should be used cautiously with sedatives, antidepressants, and antihypertensive drugs. The animal study demonstrating synergism with phenytoin is particularly noteworthy: pre-treatment with N. jatamansi root extract at 50 mg/kg in combination with phenytoin resulted in a significant increase in the protective index of phenytoin from 3.62 to 13.17, suggesting synergistic pharmacological interaction. Although this has only been studied in rodents, it raises the possibility of clinically relevant interactions with antiepileptic medications and warrants caution. Since the catalepsy test has predictive value regarding extrapyramidal effects, the possibility of pharmacological interactions between haloperidol and N. jatamansi extract should be further investigated in clinical studies.

Conservation-Related Sourcing Concerns

The increasing national and international demand for N. jatamansi, mostly for the rhizomes (underground tissue), as well as illegal and unsustainable harvesting, has brought this valuable species to the edge of extinction. Spikenard is at least as endangered as Rosewood, which is a slow-growing rainforest tree. Although spikenard is a small plant, it is also difficult to cultivate, though there have been some attempts. The species is listed under CITES Appendix II, requiring trade permits for international commerce.

Overall Evidence Assessment

Most evidence for N. jatamansi comes from animal models or in vitro studies. Therefore, more robust human research is needed to confirm its efficacy and establish standardized dosing guidelines. The totality of the scientific record supports a rich traditional use profile and a broad preliminary pharmacological profile, but does not yet support evidence-based clinical recommendations for any specific human health indication.

References

• Wikipedia: Nardostachys jatamansi
• ScienceDirect: Nardostachys jatamansi: Phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal uses, and pharmacological activities — A comprehensive review (2023)
• ScienceDirect: Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC.: An invaluable and constantly dwindling resource of the Himalayas (2020)
• PMC/NCBI: Antioxidant, Biomolecule Oxidation Protective Activities of Nardostachys jatamansi DC and Its Phytochemical Analysis by RP-HPLC and GC-MS
• PMC/NCBI: Evaluation of toxicological and antioxidant potential of Nardostachys jatamansi in reversing haloperidol-induced catalepsy in rats
• PMC/NCBI: Effect of Nardostachys jatamansi DC. on Apoptosis, Inflammation and Oxidative Stress Induced by Doxorubicin in Wistar Rats
• PMC/NCBI: Nardostachys jatamansi Extract and Nardosinone Exert Neuroprotective Effects by Suppressing Glucose Metabolic Reprogramming and Modulating T Cell Infiltration (2025)
• PubMed: Secondary metabolite profiling, cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory potential and in vitro inhibitory activities of Nardostachys jatamansi on key enzymes linked to hyperglycemia, hypertension and cognitive disorders
• PubMed: A System Pharmacology Study for Deciphering Anti Depression Activity of Nardostachys jatamansi
• Oriental Journal of Chemistry: Medicinal Properties of Nardostachys jatamansi (A Review)
• Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International: Comparative Study of Efficacy of Jatamansi and Imipramine in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Double Blind Clinical Trial (2021)
• Phytojournal: A comprehensive review of Nardostachys jatamansi's therapeutic benefits and pharmacological activities (2025)
• Drugs.com Natural Products Database: Jatamansi Uses, Benefits & Dosage
• Tisserand Institute: Spikenard and Sustainability
• GBIF: Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC.
• Phytotaxa: A note on the identity of the spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi, Caprifoliaceae) based on DNA sequence data
• VitaLibrary: Spikenard extract uses, science-backed benefits, and safe dosage
• Academia.edu: Phytochemical and Ethnopharmacology of Nardostachys jatamansi DC — An updated review