Semecarpus anacardium: A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity and Botanical Description
Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Semecarpus anacardium Linn. (abbreviated SA) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is well-known for its medicinal value in the Ayurvedic and Siddha systems of medicine. Commonly known as marking nut in English, it is an important medicinal plant in Ayurveda, Siddha, and various folk medicines of India. In Sanskrit it is called Bhallataka; its common English name is the Marking-Nut Tree; the Hindi name is Bhilawa and the Sanskrit name is Bhallataka. It is also called the Oriental cashew. The full botanical authority is Semecarpus anacardium L.f. (the epithet "L.f." acknowledging it was named by Carl Linnaeus's son, Carl von Linné the Younger).
Botanical Description and Natural Source
It is a medium-sized deciduous tree found in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with rustic appearance marked by grayish-brown bark and oblong-elliptic leaves. The plant belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, sharing its botanical group with cashews and pistachios. This deciduous small tree often reaches 10–15 meters tall, sporting grey-brown rough bark. Leaves are oblong, simple, and pubescent beneath, measuring 15–30 cm. Tiny yellowish-green flowers appear in drooping clusters, followed by distinctive drupes—yellow-green fruits with a black-striped, kidney-shaped nut inside (the "marking nut").
The nut of the plant is smooth, ovoid, and lustrous black, about 2.5 cm long. Fruits ripen from December to March. The fruits, known as drupes or marking nuts, turn black when ripe. Washer men historically used this herb to mark clothes before washing — the origin of the common name "marking nut." The plant is found throughout the Himalayas and hotter parts of India up to 3,500 ft. height, and occurs in abundance in Assam, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Chittagong, central India, and the western peninsula.
Plant Parts Used
Various parts of this herb are used, such as the fruit, gum, and the oil. Traditionally, Ayurvedic practitioners use the kernel (nut) and sometimes the root bark. The red-orange part of the Bhallataka fruit is collected, sun-dried, and used for medicinal purposes. The nut, bark, and fruit parts of the plant have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, spermicidal, and antineoplastic activities.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Ayurveda (India)
Semecarpus anacardium L.f. has been commonly used in various traditional medicines from ancient times. The nuts have been described in Ayurveda medication systems to treat numerous clinical ailments. It is commonly called Bhilwa, an ancient plant known as "half physician" for its ability to cure almost half of the known disorders, and is available in various formulations in the Ayurvedic and Siddha systems of medicine.
References to Semecarpus anacardium date back to the early Ayurvedic compendia. In the Sushruta Samhita, it is noted under "Visha Dravya" (poisonous substances) used with care to treat ulcerative skin lesions and refractory arthritis. Traditional uses include treating stomach and urinary ailments, as indicated in the Charaka Samhita. It is administered internally in cases of Nadi Dourbalya (nervous debility), Amavata (rheumatism), Apasmara (epilepsy), Gridhrasi (sciatica), and Shvasa (asthma).
Ancient texts describe its application in treating skin disorders, such as eczema and leprosy, and it was recognized as a potent agent for stimulating digestive fire (Agni), promoting appetite, and alleviating digestive complaints. Traditionally, the fruits of this plant are used as carminative, tonic, aphrodisiac, antihelminthic, and in the treatment of asthma, leucoderma, and nervous debilities.
In Ayurvedic classification, Bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium Linn.; Anacardiaceae) is mentioned under the Upavisha group in Ayurvedic classics and is described as a poisonous medicinal plant in the Drugs and Cosmetics Act (India), 1940. Bhallataka is a semi-poisonous plant; however, before using it therapeutically, Shodhana-sanskara of Bhallataka is carried out to avoid its toxic effects on the body.
Siddha Medicine (Tamil Nadu, South India)
The nut milk extract of Semecarpus anacardium is one of the formulations of Siddha Medicine in India, and this preparation is called "Serankottai nei." Serankottai nei is a medicinal ghee preparation. The nut extract is used to treat tuberculosis, cancer, lung infections, neurological discomfort, and autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Another modified Siddha recipe, called Kalpaamruthaa ("a wish-fulfilling tree"), includes nut milk extract, dried powdered Emblica officinalis fruit, and honey. This formulation has been tested for a variety of disorders, exhibiting features such as analgesic, antipyretic, anticarcinogenic, and anti-arthritic activity.
Rasayana (Rejuvenative) Use
Bhallataka seeds form one of the important ingredients used in many medicinal formulations in Ayurveda for therapeutic and Rasayana (rejuvenative) effects. They are reported to be potent antioxidants corroborating their usage as rasayana (rejuvenator) in Ayurveda. Semecarpus anacardium is also renowned for its rejuvenating and adaptogenic qualities. Ayurvedic practitioners have used it to support vitality, increase physical strength, and enhance overall well-being. It has been utilized as a nervine tonic, and preparations containing this ingredient are believed to help balance the body's doshas, particularly Kapha and Vata.
Compound Formulations in Traditional Use
In the marketplace, formulations available include Amritibhallatak Avaleha, Suran Vatak, Sanjeevani Vati, and Narsimha Choorna. Fruits following detoxification have been used to improve vision, extend lifespan, and address specific skin problems. They have also been utilized to treat asthma, piles, leprosy, arthritis, and skin conditions such as leukoderma.
3. Key Phytochemical Constituents
Overview of Chemical Classes
Chemical and phytochemical analyses of its nut reveal the presence of biflavonoids, phenolic compounds, bhilawanols, minerals, vitamins, and amino acids. Phytochemical examination has revealed that the plant contains high levels of flavones, tannins, saponins, xanthoprotein, coumarins, alkaloids, glycosides, and xanthophylls, as well as polyphenols and carotenoids.
Biflavonoids
Phytochemical investigations of the seed revealed the presence of a variety of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, biflavonoids, bhilawanols, and sterols. A unique array of biflavonoid compounds including semecarpuflavanone, jeediflavanone, galluflavanone, semecarpetin, and anacarduflavone has been reported in the seeds. Jeediflavanone, galluflavanone, nalluflavanone, semecarpetin, and anacardiflavanone have been identified as chief constituents present in the drug. Additional biflavonoids identified include biflavone-A, biflavone-C, tetrahydrorobustaflavone, and tetrahydroamentoflavone.
Tetrahydroamentoflavone (THA), a major bioactive biflavonoid, has been selected as a chemical marker of S. anacardium, and HPLC conditions have been optimized for its isolation. The mechanism of THA's anti-inflammatory action has been characterized: bioactivity-guided fractionation of an ethyl acetate extract led to the isolation of the major active principle tetrahydroamentoflavone (THA). The in vitro cyclooxygenase (COX-1) catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis assay of THA gave an IC₅₀ value of 29.5 μM (COX-1) and 40.5% inhibition at 100 μg/mL (COX-2). The in vivo carrageenan-induced paw edema assay resulted in dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect of THA, and the activity was comparable to that of ibuprofen, one of the well-known NSAIDs.
Phenolic Compounds and Bhilawanols (Urushiols)
The Bhallataka Nut Shell Liquid (BNSL) present in the pericarp of the fruit contains tarry oil consisting of anacardic acid (90%) and cardol (10%). Other isolated chemical constituents are bhilawanols (urushiols). These are the chemical constituents responsible for the irritation and toxicity. The major constituent of the tarry oil is anacardic acid and bhilawanol, a mixture of 3-n-pentadec(en)yl catechols. Bhilawanol A and B are known as urushiols, and anacardic acid is closely related to urushiol.
Bhilawanol A (monoenepentadecyl catechol I) and Bhilawanol B (dienepentadecyl catechol II) are the main phenolic compounds. Bhilawanol from organic sources was shown to be a combination of urushiol's cis- and trans-isomers, mostly consisting of 1,2-dihydroxy-3(pentadecadienyl 8′Z, 11′Z) benzene and 1,2-dihydroxy-3(pentadecadienyl 8′Z) benzene.
Additional Isolated Compounds
Anacardic acid, cardol, catechol, anacardoside, fixed oil, semecarpol, bhilawanol, biflavonoids, and biflavones are among the active ingredients. GC/MS, IR, proton NMR, carbon NMR and CID spectra analysis showed that one isolated active compound is 3-(8′(Z),11′(Z)-pentadecadienyl) catechol (SA-3C). SA-3C is cytotoxic to tumor cell lines with IC₅₀ values lower than doxorubicin, and even multidrug-resistant tumor cell lines were equally sensitive to SA-3C. SA-3C isolated from the kernel of Semecarpus anacardium can be developed as an important anticancer agent for single-agent and/or multiagent cancer therapy.
Bhilawanol and anacardic acid are two lipid-soluble compounds mostly found in the nut of Semecarpus anacardium. Recent work has identified the neuroprotective relevance of these compounds: S. anacardium extract and its phytocomponents, such as butein, anacardic acid, and amentoflavone, have been experimentally demonstrated to modulate oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.
4. Established Mechanisms of Action
Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Mechanisms
Evaluation of crude ethanolic extract of SA nuts for anti-inflammatory activities in vitro using peripheral blood and synovial fluid mononuclear cells showed that SA extract inhibited the spontaneous and LPS-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-12p40, but had no effect on TNF-α and IL-6 production, both at protein and mRNA level. The crude extract also suppressed LPS-induced nuclear translocation of transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1; the inhibition of NF-κB was through the inhibition of IκBα phosphorylation.
In paw edema in albino Wistar rats, SA milk extract treatment reduced myeloperoxidase, nitric oxide, and TNF-α levels, proving anti-inflammatory activity against acute and chronic cases of paw edema.
Antioxidant Mechanisms
Crude extracts and active metabolites of Semecarpus anacardium L. have shown potential in reversing dysregulated oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. In a DPPH scavenging assay, the IC₅₀ value of SA extract was found to be 72.24 μg/mL.
Antidiabetic Mechanisms
Diabetes was induced by the administration of streptozotocin at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight. Three days after induction, Semecarpus anacardium at a dose of 300 mg/kg body weight was administered for 21 days. After the experimental duration, the activities of enzymes involved in glycolysis, the TCA cycle, gluconeogenesis, and glycogen were assayed in the liver and kidney. The levels of enzymes involved in glycolysis and TCA cycle increased, while that of gluconeogenesis decreased. The activities of mitochondrial complexes were also favorably modulated, and the expressions of PI3K and AKT increased in skeletal muscle. These effects were attributed to the hypoglycemic and antioxidative activity of Semecarpus anacardium. The results revealed that Semecarpus anacardium was able to restore the altered activities of enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and energy production.
Neuroprotective Mechanisms
This herb has many medicinal properties including enhancing learning and memory. Investigators studied the neuroprotective effects of bhilawanol and anacardic acid against glutamate-induced cell death in PC12 cells. Cell viability, toxicity, and calcium influx were determined by MTT assay, LDH release assay, and Fluo-3 imaging, while apoptosis was assayed by caspase-3 and Bcl-2 gene expression. Bhilawanol and anacardic acid treatments significantly increased cell viability, reduced cell toxicity, and calcium influx in PC12 cells, in addition to suppressing reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, anacardic acid treatment decreased caspase-3 expression, whereas both bhilawanol and anacardic acid enhanced the expression of anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 in PC12 cells.
Anticancer Mechanisms
Ethyl acetate leaf extract selectively affects cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner (IC₅₀: 0.57 µg/mL in MCF-7 cells) in various cancer cell lines and induces apoptosis in cancer cells. Non-malignant cells were relatively insensitive to the extract. Incubation of the leaf extract induces cell cycle arrest and suppresses cancer cell migration in cell culture models.
Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition
The seed of Semecarpus anacardium is widely used in Indian traditional medicine for treatment of inflammatory disorders and gout. A study was aimed at isolation of a compound for its potential to inhibit xanthine oxidase (XO), overexpression of which leads to inflammation and gout. Activity-guided fractionation using liquid–liquid partition and preparative HPLC found that the ethyl acetate fraction with the highest XO inhibitory activity yielded a biflavonoid compound — tetrahydroamentoflavone.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Anti-inflammatory and Arthritis
Animal studies: A chloroform extract of the nut significantly reduced acute carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats and was active against the secondary lesions of adjuvant-induced arthritis. Delayed hypersensitivity induced in mice by sheep red blood cells as an antigen was potentiated by the extract.
In vitro with human cells: A study evaluated the crude ethanolic extract of SA nuts for anti-inflammatory activities using peripheral blood and synovial fluid mononuclear cells. Semecarpus anacardium extract significantly inhibited IL-1β and IL-12p40 in mononuclear cells from RA patients. The extract suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines via inhibition of NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors. The study involved 20 participants: 10 healthy individuals and 10 rheumatoid arthritis patients, aged 24–60. Nitric oxide production was significantly reduced at 1.0 and 0.5 mg/mL doses of the extract (p < 0.05).
Evidence assessment: The anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic evidence base consists primarily of in vitro mechanistic work and rodent models. Very few studies have been reported on the hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, antiatherogenic, antifungal, antifertility, and neuroprotective activities. The anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities of milk extract and chloroform extract have been documented in rats and mice. Controlled clinical trials in human arthritic populations are lacking, limiting translation to clinical recommendations.
5.2 Anticancer Activity
A 2024 mini-review aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the pharmacological mechanisms underlying the effects of extracts and phytochemicals of SCA fruits in cellular, animal models, and clinical trials of cancer and inflammatory diseases. A comprehensive literature search was conducted utilizing PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, preprint platforms, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Out of 1,130 retrieved database records, 316 pertained to systematic reviews. The remaining 814 records focused on examining the anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties of SCA fruits. In the course of these investigations, the four primary cancer types linked to SCA fruits were identified as lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, breast cancer, and blood cancer.
Anti-cancer activity of the leaves of Semecarpus anacardium was evaluated for future drug development. The plant's nuts have been described in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine to treat clinical ailments such as vitiligo, inflammation, microbial infection, geriatric problems, baldness, and neuro-related problems. In one study, phytochemical screening was done by GC-MS analysis, cytotoxicity was examined using the MTT assay, mode of cell death was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy, and antitumor activity was determined in Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) cell-induced tumor-bearing mice.
Anacardic acid derivatives — anacardic acid monoene, anacardic acid diene, and anacardic acid triene — were found to be present in both raw and purified samples; however, their abundance was less in purified samples. Anacardic acid at higher concentrations may induce toxic and allergic effects.
Evidence assessment: Research is being done on S. anacardium's potential as an adjuvant therapy in cancer treatment, even though clinical data is still in its early stages. The body of evidence remains predominantly preclinical (cell lines and animal models). No large, randomized, placebo-controlled human clinical trials have been reported in the literature reviewed.
5.3 Antidiabetic Activity
In a high-fat diet STZ-induced type 2 diabetic rat model, fasting blood glucose, insulin, Hb, HbA1c levels, HOMA-IR, HOMA-β, and levels of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes were measured. SA significantly (p < 0.05) reduced and normalized blood glucose levels and also decreased the levels of HbA1c as compared with that of the HFD STZ control group.
Results showed that the survival rate was 100% in rats of Group SA 400 (400 mg/kg). The effect of extract on blood glucose level was dose-dependent throughout the treatment period. No significant changes in organ weight to body weight ratio were observed, though liver weights significantly improved in Groups SA 200 and SA 400. The bark extract exhibited significant (p < 0.05) anti-diabetic activity by lowering TC, TG, and LDL levels dose-dependently and protected the liver, which may be partially explained by attenuation of SGOT and SGPT levels and increases in liver glycogen.
These results indicated that stem barks of S. anacardium possess strong anti-diabetic and antioxidant potentials and support traditional medicinal use for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
Evidence assessment: Evidence for antidiabetic activity is entirely from animal models (streptozotocin- and alloxan-induced rodent diabetes). Human clinical data are absent. The mechanisms — improving glycolytic enzyme activity, increasing PI3K/AKT signalling, and reducing gluconeogenesis — are promising but unvalidated in human trials.
5.4 Cardioprotective Activity
SA provides cardioprotective effects by restoring altered enzyme levels, improving renal markers (urea, creatinine, uric acid), and reducing oxidative stress. Preliminary research suggests that Bhallataka may have beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, glucose metabolism, circulatory system, and digestive system, with low toxicity. These findings are promising and support the potential use of Bhallataka as a therapeutic agent.
Evidence assessment: Cardioprotective data are derived from preclinical animal experiments only. No human data are available.
5.5 Neuroprotective and Nootropic Activity
Crude extracts and active metabolites of Semecarpus anacardium have shown potential in reversing dysregulated oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. SAE and its phytocomponents, such as butein, anacardic acid, and amentoflavone, have been experimentally demonstrated to modulate oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Collectively, these findings indicate that SAE exerts neuroprotective effects through integrated modulation of oxidative stress, inflammatory signalling, and apoptosis.
Semecarpus anacardium has been reported to possess nootropic activity. However, very few studies have been reported on the neuroprotective activities specifically. Evidence remains limited to in vitro cell models and animal experiments.
5.6 Antimicrobial Activity
Semecarpus anacardium Linn. is a plant well-known for its antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anti-arthritic properties in the Ayurvedic and Siddha systems of medicine. This has prompted the screening of this plant for antibacterial activity. The main aims of one study were to isolate compounds from the plant's seeds and evaluate their antibacterial effects on clinical bacterial test strains. The n-butanolic concentrate of the seed extract was subjected to thin-layer chromatography and repeated silica gel column chromatography. The compound was identified based on IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The well-diffusion method was employed to evaluate antibacterial activities of the isolated acyclic isoprenoid compound (final concentration: 5–15 μg/mL) on four test bacterial strains, including Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 96), Bacillus cereus (MTCC 430), Escherichia coli (MTCC 1689), and Acinetobacter spp.
Evidence assessment: Antimicrobial evidence is in vitro only, without supporting clinical studies.
5.7 Analgesic Activity
The analgesic activity of petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol extracts of Semecarpus anacardium was investigated by tail-flick and writhing methods using acetylsalicylic acid as the standard reference. The staircase method was adopted for the determination of acute toxicity. LDâ‚…â‚€ of the petroleum ether extract and the chloroform extract was 700 mg/kg; however, the LDâ‚…â‚€ for the methanol extract was 500 mg/kg. The number of writhings observed in the control group was 73.33. The methanol extract showed significant analgesic activity, with 28.33 writhes, greater than the petroleum ether and chloroform extracts. However, all the extracts proved to be less potent than the standard drug, which showed 2.33 writhes.
Evidence assessment: Analgesic evidence is from preclinical rodent models only.
5.8 Anti-spermatogenic (Anti-fertility) Activity
The administration of ethanolic extract of Semecarpus anacardium fruit leads to spermatogenic arrest in albino rats. Significant reduction in sperm motility and sperm density was observed. This is a notable preclinical finding with implications for reproductive safety.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas
Based on the peer-reviewed literature, Semecarpus anacardium has been investigated across the following body systems:
- Musculoskeletal system: Antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-carcinogenic activity has been reported, along with analgesic and nootropic properties. Particular attention has been paid to rheumatoid arthritis and adjuvant-induced arthritic models.
- Metabolic/Endocrine system: Studies on the effect of the nut milk extract of S. anacardium on blood glucose, plasma insulin, glucose-metabolizing enzymes, and glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) have been conducted. Treatment with SA extract showed a significant reduction in blood glucose levels and an increase in plasma insulin levels.
- Cardiovascular system: SA-treated rats showed changes in VLDL, TG, cholesterol, phospholipids, and free fatty acids. SA-treated rats also showed increased pancreatic islet numbers. SA provides cardioprotective effects by restoring altered enzyme levels, improving renal markers, and reducing oxidative stress.
- Nervous system: Bhilawanol and anacardic acid are two lipid-soluble compounds found in the nut. This herb has many medicinal properties including enhancing learning and memory.
- Oncology (experimental): The four primary cancer types linked to SCA fruits in the literature are lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, breast cancer, and blood cancer.
- Immune system: The plant has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory activity, anti-arthritic effect, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, anti-carcinogenic activity, hypoglycemic activity, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and hypolipidemic activity.
- Skin: Different parts, including nuts, have various medicinal properties to treat diseases like vitiligo, geriatric problems, baldness, and neuro-related problems.
- Reproductive system: Administration of ethanolic extract leads to spermatogenic arrest and reduction in sperm motility and density in male rats.
7. Dosage Forms and Preparations
Traditional Preparations
Semecarpus anacardium (Bhallataka) is traditionally given with milk in Ayurveda. When toxicity studies were carried out in animals, there was mortality that was nullified when the plant was co-administered with milk. The most widely studied preparation is the milk extract: Cow's milk, ghee, and nuts are the primary components. The medication was made by boiling 200 g of nuts with 500 cc of milk. Five hundred ml of milk was added to the boiled nuts after decanting the decoction, and the combination was then heated again. The decoction was collected, and the procedure was repeated with milk. Ghee was added to all three components of the milk nut decoction before being cooked until dried, then filtered and stored.
Dosages Reported in Scientific Studies
The following dosages are reported as used in specific published experiments only; they do not represent clinical recommendations:
- Nut milk extract administered orally at a dosage of 200 mg/kg daily for 4 weeks in one animal antidiabetic study.
- Semecarpus anacardium at a dose of 300 mg/kg body weight was administered for 21 days after streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats.
- A dose of 150 mg/kg body weight of SA was used in one anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic comparison study.
- In analgesic/toxicity studies using stem bark extracts in mice, LDâ‚…â‚€ of the petroleum ether extract and the chloroform extract was 700 mg/kg; the LDâ‚…â‚€ for the methanol extract was 500 mg/kg.
- In an in vitro study with mononuclear cells from RA patients and healthy individuals, nitric oxide production was significantly reduced at 1.0 and 0.5 mg/mL doses of the extract (p < 0.05).
Modern Commercial Forms
HPLC and HPTLC analysis of the nut and milk extract have been carried out to confirm the presence of jeediflavanone, galluflavanone, nalluflavanone, semecarpetin, and anacardiflavanone as the key constituents, supporting standardization of preparations. In the market, formulations available include Amritibhallatak Avaleha, Suran Vatak, Sanjeevani Vati, and Narsimha Choorna.
8. Safety Considerations, Toxicity, and Interactions
Inherent Toxicity
The fruit of Bhallathaka in raw form has been reported to cause irritation, blisters, toxicity, and contact dermatitis, and hence it should be used for medicine preparation only after the specific purification process known as Shodhana in Ayurveda. It is hazardous to humans due to its irritant property, causing symptoms like burning sensation of the skin, blister formation, ulcer, and so on.
The plant possesses toxic characteristics capable of causing skin and ocular lesions, miscarriages, and dermatitis. Exposure to the plant's sap can lead to nephrotoxicity and painful micturition.
The Role of Shodhana (Purification)
Shodhana is essential because higher-concentrated chemicals may contribute towards adverse episodes on the human body. There are two types of Shodhana — Samanyashodhana and Visheshshodhana — which purify toxic drugs. Shodhana limits toxicity by removing the visible and invisible impurities, heterogeneous substances, and toxic substances.
The nuts are subjected to fresh cow urine daily for 7 days, followed by cow milk daily for 7 days, followed by rubbing thoroughly with brick powder for 3 days. During the treatment with cow urine and cow milk, the nuts are washed with water before adding fresh cow urine or milk. On the final day (the 18th day), the nuts are washed with hot water to remove the brick powder. This Shodhana procedure is repeated three times.
The Shodhana process leads to significant reduction of toxic fatty acid or oil content and reduction in the toxic phenolic components in the processed drug of SA L.f. In Ayurveda, a series of pharmaceutical procedures which converts a poisonous drug into a safe and therapeutically effective medicine is termed as Shodhana. Shodhana improves the yield and decreases the phenolic and flavonoid content, and converts toxic urushiol into nontoxic forms.
Idiosyncratic Reactions
A case report described a likely case of Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS)-like idiosyncratic adversity after oral consumption of an Ayurvedic formulation containing Bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium). Shodhana (purification) of Bhallataka is said to play a crucial role in rendering safety to Bhallataka.
Contact Dermatitis Risk
Bhilawanol A and B are known as urushiols, and anacardic acid is closely related to urushiol. Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis is the medical name given to allergic rashes produced by these compounds. Persons handling the raw nut or pericarp are at risk of allergic skin reactions identical in mechanism to those from poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), which belongs to the same plant family.
Reproductive Toxicity
In the Ayurvedic literature, fatal doses may lead to death within 12–24 hours. Excess use of Bhallataka may induce abortion in pregnant women. The administration of ethanolic extract leads to spermatogenic arrest in albino rats, with significant reduction in sperm motility and sperm density.
Legal Classification
Bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium Linn.; Anacardiaceae) is mentioned under the Upavisha group in Ayurvedic classics and is described as a poisonous medicinal plant in the Drugs and Cosmetics Act (India), 1940.
Overall Evidence Summary
Several studies have reported that Semecarpus anacardium Linn. contains compounds such as anacardic acid with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Further research is required to fully elucidate its therapeutic uses and potential side effects. Semecarpus anacardium is a highly valuable plant with significant pharmacological potential. Its diverse range of therapeutic effects, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities, positions it as an important medicinal plant in both traditional and modern medicine. However, despite its benefits, toxicity concerns related to improper use warrant caution. Further clinical trials and scientific research are needed to fully establish its safety profile and efficacy in treating various diseases.
References
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