Schizonepeta (Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq.): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity, Botanical Description, and Natural Source
Schizonepeta tenuifolia (ST) Briq., also known in China as Jing Jie, belongs to the family Lamiaceae and is a perennial herbaceous plant and an herbal medicine that has been widely used for thousands of years in China, Japan and Korea. The species is also recognized taxonomically under the synonym Nepeta tenuifolia in some of the older literature. Schizonepeta tenuifolia, commonly known as Japanese catnip, is a valuable medicinal plant in the Lamiaceae family, renowned for its antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties in traditional Chinese medicine.
ST is a perennial plant with a firm stem, lignified base and many branches, and is 40–150 cm tall, subquadrilateral at the base, superficially an obtuse quadrilateral, lightly grooved and covered with white pubescence. It mostly grows near houses or in thickets where the elevation is generally no more than 2500 m. The dried aerial part of ST is applied clinically for diseases such as allergic skin disease, inflammatory skin disease, infectious skin disease and the common cold.
The plant should not be confused with "true catnip" of the genus Nepeta (also Lamiaceae). While true catnip is in the same family of plants as schizonepeta, unlike true catnip, schizonepeta is an annual plant with a pleasant aroma similar to pine.
The genus also includes the closely related species Schizonepeta multifida. An important finding from comparative research is that distinct chemotypes drive contrasting pharmacological approaches: S. tenuifolia and S. multifida, characterized by a menthone/pulegone chemotype, exhibit strong anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, while S. annua, defined by a thymol-type profile, demonstrates increased potential for antioxidant and antimicrobial applications.
Common Names
- Chinese: Jing Jie (荆芥)
- Japanese: Keigai
- Korean: Hyonggae
- English: Japanese catnip, Japanese mint
Medicinal Parts and Forms
The entire tops of the herb are used, and are collected when there is a large flower spike, in the autumn. The spike, known as jingjiesui, is the preferred portion. Two official medicinal preparations are recognized in Chinese herbal medicine: Schizonepetae Herba (the dried aerial parts) and Schizonepetae Spica (the dried spike). About ten processing methods for Schizonepetae Herba and Schizonepetae Spica have been recorded since ancient times, and raw and charred drugs were the major products. Raw Schizonepetae Herba is required to be used in sections, whereas raw Schizonepetae Spica in clean preparation. Both charred products should avoid scorching.
The aerial parts of the plant (such as the leaves, stems and flowers) are gathered in autumn and winter, dried in the shade and cut into pieces. Schizonepeta can be used raw, or after being baked until it turns yellow and black. The carbonized (charred) form — produced by stir-frying the dried plant material until charred on the outside — has historically been used specifically for its hemostatic properties, which differ from those of the raw herb.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Schizonepeta was first mentioned in the Shennong Bencao Jing (The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica), though early texts did not clearly distinguish between the plant and its flower spike. It was first recorded in Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (Shen Nong's herbal classic), a book written 2000 years ago.
Schizonepeta was described in the Advanced Textbook on Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology (ca. 100 A.D.) as acrid and warm, mainly used to treat cold and heat disorders, fistulas, and scrofulous swellings. According to Oriental Materia Medica, the herb dispels wind, resolves the surface, and controls bleeding; it is used for fever due to wind-cold, headache, laryngitis, carbuncle, tumor, and postpartum syncope.
Over time, herbalists provided detailed descriptions of its properties. In the Ming Dynasty, Li Shizhen's Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica) documented Schizonepeta's appearance, taste, and uses, noting that the flower spike is especially effective for dispersing wind.
The whole herb of Schizonepeta tenuifolia was used as medicine in the early records. The aerial part and the dried spike of S. tenuifolia were used as medicines separately in the Song Dynasty, which was recorded in the Atlas of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Tu Jing). Some ancient classics emphasized that only the dried spike could be used as medicine.
In classical Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) theory, schizonepeta has warm and pungent properties, and is associated with the Lung and Liver meridians. Its functions are to expel wind and stop bleeding. When used individually, mentha is selected for formulas involving wind-heat syndromes, while schizonepeta is selected for formulas involving wind-cold.
The aerial parts and spikes can be used as traditional phytomedicines for the treatment of cold, fever, respiratory diseases, and skin diseases in the clinic and as a vegetable in salads or cooked foods. These applications have lasted for thousands of years due to their outstanding performance.
Historically, TCM applications also encompassed skin conditions. It is also used to help vent rashes such as early stage measles, allergic skin conditions, and eczema or psoriasis. It is considered the most important herb for treating skin infections. With an ability to stop bleeding it is also often used with other herbs to treat bloody stools, blood in the urine, and even hemorrhaging. Schizonepeta can shorten coagulation time, helping to stop bleeding.
Schizonepeta tenuifolia is one of the most frequently used crude drugs for oriental medicine in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian areas. With the global growth on the use of herbal products, Jingjie has been commonly marketed for the treatment of common cold and fever in Chinese proprietary medicines.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
The main chemical constituent of ST is volatile oil, and other compounds, such as flavonoids, glycosides, etc., were detected. Many chemical components can be isolated and detected by using various analysis methods, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, ketones, quinones, alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids and esters, etc., in which volatile oil was considered to be the main chemical component.
A total of 102 phytochemicals have been found and identified in N. tenuifolia, which were grouped into terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids and other components, including many bioactive compounds such as pulegone, hesperidin, and rosmarinic acid.
Volatile Oil and Terpenoids
The therapeutic effects of S. tenuifolia are largely attributed to its rich volatile oil content, which includes significant terpenoids such as (−)-pulegone, (+)-limonene, (−)-isopulegone and (+)-menthone.
It mainly contains essential oil such as 47.7% l-pulegone, 14.3% d-menthone, 5.4% schizonal, 4.1% cis-pulegone oxide, 1.9% piperitone. These proportions reflect reported representative compositions; exact values may differ across growing regions, harvesting times, and processing methods.
These bioactive compounds exhibit diverse pharmacological activities: (−)-pulegone possesses anti-hyperalgesic properties; (+)-limonene is known for its anti-anxiety and anticancer effects; (−)-isopulegone has antimicrobial activity; and (+)-menthone is valued for its anti-allergic and antitumor properties.
A distinctive constituent, schizonepetin, is a natural monoterpene unique to the species. Schizonepetin was first isolated from the essential oil of S. tenuifolia in 1998. It had been reported to have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic and analgesic activities.
Research has identified novel unique monoterpene glycosides called schizonepetosides. From the MeOH extract of the aerial parts, identified compounds include (−)-pulegone, piperitenone, p-cymene-3,8-diol, schizonepetoside A, schizonepetoside C, (+)-spatulenol, ursolic acid, rosmarinic acid, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, hesperidin and trans-phytol.
Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids
Several important flavonoids and phenolic compounds have been isolated from S. tenuifolia spikes. Nine compounds were isolated and identified including ursolic acid, hesperidin, luteolin, and several methoxyflavones. Additional phenolic acids include rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid. Volatile monoterpenes are the most studied constituents of S. tenuifolia oil, but a range of other specialized metabolites have also been characterized, including flavonoids, monoterpene alcohols, monoterpene glycosides, sesquiterpenes, and organic acids.
Chemical Variation by Plant Part and Processing
The main chemical constituents of ST include monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, flavonoids, aldehydes, ketones, quinones, alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids, esters, alkenes and alkanes. The types and contents of chemical constituents obtained from different medicinal parts of ST or the same part of ST obtained through different extraction methods are different.
Processing into the charred form causes important chemical transformations. Glucoside could be hydrolyzed to aglycone under various conditions, including high temperature during stir-fry processing. In addition, luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside has been documented to possess significant anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects. Luteolin has been shown to be a potent hemostatic drug candidate. Thus, the increased luteolin content in the charred product may partially explain its traditional use for bleeding.
4. Mechanisms of Action
Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms
ST inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-6 production. The maximal inhibition rate of TNF-alpha and IL-6 production by ST (2 mg/ml) was 48.01 ± 2.8% and 56.45 ± 2.8%, respectively. During the inflammatory process, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were increased in mouse peritoneal macrophages. However, treatment with ST decreased the protein level of COX-2 and iNOS, as well as the production of PGE2 and NO in LPS-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. In addition, ST inhibited the phosphorylation of MAPK.
The findings demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties, with molecular mechanisms primarily involving the suppression of MAPK and NF-κB pathways, alongside the modulation of Th1- and Th2-mediated inflammatory cytokine production.
ST extract exerts therapeutic effects via several pathways including: inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK, downregulation of mediators (NO, iNOS, COX-2, PGE2), downregulation of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8), and modulation of Th1/Th2 balance.
Immunomodulatory Mechanisms (Mast Cell/Allergic)
ST inhibited 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene- (DNCB-) induced atopic dermatitis in mice by the suppression of IgE, TNF-α, and IL-6 and by nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation, as well as through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity.
In IgE-stimulated mast cell studies, the markers of inflammation and allergic reaction, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-6, were suppressed, especially after treatment with 100 μg/mL ST. However, the anti-inflammation marker IL-10 was also suppressed by ST. Degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells was assessed by measuring the release of β-hexosaminidase, which was suppressed by ST at 10 μg/mL. This study showed an immunomodulatory effect of ST at the cellular level and suggests the role of ST in treating allergic diseases.
Antipyretic Mechanisms
Zhang et al. showed that nepetalactone (a terpenoid compound) could significantly reduce the body temperature of rats in a fever model, showing a significant antipyretic effect.
Antiviral Mechanisms
STE treatment induced the expression of mRNAs for type I and type II interferons in HG23 cells and upregulated the transcription of interferon-β in infected RAW 264.7 cells via increased phosphorylation of interferon regulatory factor 3, a critical transcription regulator for type I interferon production. These results suggest that STE inhibits norovirus replication through the induction of antiviral interferon production during virus replication.
Against enterovirus 71 (EV71), treatment with STE reduced viral attachment and entry; the cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) by EV71 protease, 2Apro; virus-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation; and relocation of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1) from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. It was accompanied by a decline in EV71-associated hyperphosphorylation of p38 kinase and EPS15. It is plausible that STE may inhibit ROS-induced p38 kinase activation, and subsequent hnRNP A1 relocation and EPS15-mediated membrane trafficking in infected cells.
TRPV1 and Skin Barrier Modulation
CD68+/TRPV1+ cells were found to be increased in human atopic dermatitis tissue. Further studies showed that JF water extract suppressed TRPV1 expression in macrophages, potentially by affecting NF-κB p65 phosphorylation rather than the JAK-STAT6 pathway.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Atopic Dermatitis and Allergic Skin Conditions
This is the area with the most human clinical investigation, though schizonepeta has predominantly been studied as part of multi-herb formulae. The most studied proprietary herbal formulation is Zemaphyte, a ten-herb Chinese formulation in which schizonepeta is one ingredient.
While no in-depth clinical data are available for S. tenuifolia oil or its constituents, the herb is contained, among nine others, in Zemaphyte®, a Chinese herbal remedy for which clinical trials to treat atopic dermatitis have been completed.
Several controlled clinical trials were conducted on this formulation in the early 1990s. A landmark trial by Sheehan and Atherton (Br J Dermatol 1992) and a parallel Lancet study by Sheehan et al. (1992) examined adult and pediatric patients with atopic eczema using the Zemaphyte formula containing schizonepeta; these demonstrated statistically significant improvements in erythema, surface damage, and lichenification scores compared to placebo. The trials were double-blind and crossover in design but involved relatively small sample sizes.
A follow-up study was conducted on these patients: Sheehan MP, Stevens H, Ostlere LS, et al. examined follow-up of adult patients with atopic eczema treated with Chinese herbal therapy for 1 year, published in Clin Exp Dermatol 1995.
Fung et al. (Int J Dermatol 1999) conducted a controlled trial in Chinese patients with recalcitrant atopic dermatitis using traditional Chinese herbal medicine including schizonepeta. This review presents an up-to-date assessment of the plant with respect to its traditional uses, chemical constituents, various pharmacological activities, and clinical effects; nonetheless, its mechanism of actions, adverse effects, drug interactions, and contraindications remain unclear.
Notably, the Cochrane review covering this area has had significant limitations: the Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004 entry on Chinese herbal medicine for atopic eczema was subsequently retracted.
In preclinical studies, historically, ST has been used for the treatment of skin disorders, such as allergic dermatitis, eczema, and inflammatory diseases. In a mouse model, ST inhibited 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD) in BALB/c mice. In histopathological analyses, skin thickness was significantly increased in DNCB-induced mice compared with the normal group. Treatment with ST inhibited this inflammatory change and markedly suppressed the secretion of immunoglobulin E, tumor necrosis factor α, and interleukin 6 levels in the serum of DNCB-induced mice.
A 2024 study investigated schizonepeta in combination with Saposhnikovia divaricata: this study offers initial evidence of the effectiveness of JF water extract in suppressing inflammation in atopic dermatitis. The therapeutic effect may stem from its ability to downregulate TRPV1 expression and subsequent NF-κB p65 phosphorylation in macrophages.
Strength of evidence: For atopic dermatitis, evidence from human trials is modest — most trials involved multi-herb formulas rather than schizonepeta as a sole agent, had small sample sizes, and the key Cochrane review in this area was retracted. Preclinical (animal and cell) evidence is more extensive and mechanistically informative, but cannot be extrapolated directly to humans.
5.2 Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Effects
Pharmacological studies and clinical practice have confirmed that it is used as an antipyretic, analgesic, antipathogenic microorganisms, anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, and hemostasis drug for the treatment of colds, headaches, measles, rubella, sores, etc.
The anti-inflammatory effects have been primarily demonstrated in animal models and cell cultures. The volatile oil of ST has been studied in carrageenin-induced pleurisy in rats, showing anti-inflammatory activity; this work also explored appropriate harvesting time optimization. Anti-inflammatory mechanisms operating via COX-2 inhibition, reduction of PGE2, suppression of iNOS and NO, and blockade of MAPK phosphorylation have been described in mouse macrophage models.
Strength of evidence: The anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities are well-supported by preclinical (animal and in vitro) data. No large, well-controlled human clinical trials isolating schizonepeta as a single agent for inflammatory conditions were identified in the current literature. The clinical applications are described in traditional usage and reviews, but mechanism of actions, adverse effects, drug interactions, and contraindications remain unclear.
5.3 Antiviral Activity
In vitro evidence for antiviral activity against noroviruses is notable. A study was conducted to examine the antiviral activities of Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briquet extract (STE) against noroviruses. Treatment of human norovirus replicon-bearing HG23 cells with STE at 5 and 10 mg/ml concentrations resulted in the reduction of the viral RNA levels by 77.2% and 85.9%, respectively. STE had no cytotoxic effects on HG23 cells. Treatment of RAW 264.7 cells infected with murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), a surrogate virus of human noroviruses, with STE at 10 and 20 µg/ml concentrations resulted in the reduction of viral replication by 58.5% and 84.9%, respectively.
Against enterovirus 71, these findings suggest that STE possesses anti-EV71 activities, and may serve as health food or candidate antiviral drug for protection against EV71.
Strength of evidence: Antiviral evidence is entirely preclinical (in vitro and animal models). No human clinical trials on STE's antiviral efficacy have been identified. Results are promising mechanistically but require confirmation in human studies.
5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
Its volatile constituents exert several pharmacological activities, such as analgesic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, anti-febrile, antimicrobial, hemostatic activity and antispasmodic properties. Essential oil from S. tenuifolia has been tested against bacterial strains including Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in laboratory settings. Steam-distilled essential oil demonstrated the highest antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in comparative extraction studies.
Strength of evidence: Antimicrobial evidence is limited to in vitro studies. No clinical trials have evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy of schizonepeta in humans.
5.5 Hemostatic Effects
Various forms of SH have been found to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-tumour, and immunomodulatory effects. While charred schizonepeta (SHC) has significant hemostatic effects, it has long been used in treating bloody stools and allergies. The transformation of luteolin glycosides to aglycone luteolin upon charring — a temperature-dependent chemical transformation — is hypothesized as a key mechanism, as luteolin has been identified as a potent hemostatic candidate in laboratory research.
Strength of evidence: Hemostatic effects are documented in preclinical (animal) studies and are consistent with long-standing traditional use of the charred form. No robust human clinical trials specifically evaluating charred schizonepeta as a hemostatic agent have been identified in the current literature.
5.6 Antipruritic (Anti-itch) Effects
Methanol extracts of schizonepeta were found to inhibit substance P-induced itch-scratch responses in animal models (Tohda et al., Biol Pharm Bull 2000). Several studies indicate that the herb retards histamine secretion and may modulate substance P activity, which are important mediators of pruritus. These actions align with its classical use in treating skin conditions characterized by itching.
Several scientific studies have hinted that schizonepeta slows down the production of substance P, a compound known to incite scratching and itching reactions. In addition, the herb also retards the secretion of histamine.
Strength of evidence: Animal and cell-based studies only. No controlled human trials specifically on antipruritic use of schizonepeta alone have been identified.
5.7 Antioxidant Effects
Modern pharmacological studies show that the extracts of ST have various pharmacological activities, including antioxidant effects. Aqueous extracts of S. tenuifolia have demonstrated free radical scavenging capabilities in laboratory assays. Aqueous extracts of the plant demonstrate antioxidant capabilities, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidation. Identified compounds such as hesperidin, luteolin, and diosmetin contribute to its ability to decrease inflammation in mice models.
Strength of evidence: Antioxidant effects are demonstrated in vitro and in animal models. No human clinical evidence specifically on schizonepeta's antioxidant effects has been identified.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas
- Integumentary system (skin): Atopic dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, urticaria, measles rash, carbuncle, sores; historically classified as a primary herb for skin infections and inflammatory skin conditions.
- Respiratory system: Common cold, fever, headache, sore throat (laryngitis), nasal congestion; used in both wind-cold and wind-heat external patterns in TCM.
- Immune system: Immunomodulatory activity affecting mast cells, Th1/Th2 balance, and cytokine production.
- Hematological: Hemostatic activity (charred form) used for bloody stool, hematuria, and postpartum hemorrhage.
- Gastrointestinal / antiviral: Preclinical evidence of activity against norovirus, a leading cause of gastroenteritis.
- Infectious disease: Preclinical antibacterial and antiviral activities.
7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
The typical dose of schizonepeta is between 4.5 grams and 9 grams, boiled in water and used as a decoction. Some practitioners use schizonepeta as part of a poultice to treat certain skin conditions. Dried, sliced schizonepeta can be found at many herbal shops and specialty stores.
The herb is available in multiple preparation forms. In clinical and experimental settings, the following forms have been used:
- Aqueous decoction: The primary traditional preparation; the whole herb or spikes are simmered in water. Reported traditional dose range is 4.5–9 g of dried herb per decoction.
- Volatile (essential) oil: Extracted by steam distillation or hydrodistillation for research purposes; used in preclinical studies on anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity.
- Hydroalcoholic (methanol/ethanol) extracts: Used extensively in pharmacological research; concentrations studied in cell culture models ranged from 10 μg/mL to 100 μg/mL.
- Carbonized/charred product: Traditionally used at doses comparable to the raw herb (4.5–9 g), specifically for hemostatic indications.
- Dried, powdered extract: Available in commercial supplement preparations, though standardization is not uniformly defined.
In the norovirus in vitro study, STE at 5 and 10 mg/ml concentrations resulted in the reduction of the viral RNA levels by 77.2% and 85.9%, respectively. In the IgE mast cell study, ST at concentrations of 10, 50, or 100 μg/mL was added to the IgE-stimulated cell cultures.
Regarding the key isolated monoterpene schizonepetin, schizonepetin could be fast and well absorbed with its Cmax and absolute bioavailability of 0.80 h and 75%, respectively.
8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions
General Safety
While significant traditional and preclinical data exist, the mechanism of actions, adverse effects, drug interactions, and contraindications of schizonepeta remain unclear in clinical terms. A formal safety profile in humans has not been established through controlled studies specific to schizonepeta as a sole agent.
Toxicology of Schizonepetin
The isolated key constituent schizonepetin has undergone dedicated acute and subacute toxicity studies. The median lethal dose (LD50) of schizonepetin after oral administration was 478 mg/kg body weight in mice. Studies on dose toxicity were repeatedly conducted at 0, 60, 120, and 240 mg/kg bw/day in rats for 35 days after oral administration. Based on the results of this study, a dose level of 120 mg/kg bw/day is considered the no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) in rats.
Schizonepetin was negative in Salmonella typhimurium tester strains TA97, TA98, TA100, TA102 and TA1535, nonclastogenic in Chinese hamster lung (CHL) cells in the mammalian chromosome aberration test, and micronucleus formation was observed and no clinical signs or adverse effects were detected, indicating that schizonepetin is not genotoxic. It possessed various pharmacological effects, including excellent antiviral, anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities, while without obvious toxicity of the respiratory, cardiovascular and nervous systems in rats and dogs.
Potential High-Dose Hepatotoxicity
When taken at high doses, schizonepeta is possibly unsafe and might damage the liver. This is based on known hepatotoxic potential of pulegone-containing herbs at high doses; this concern applies especially when the essential oil is concentrated. However, specific clinical case reports involving schizonepeta-induced hepatotoxicity have not been widely documented in the literature reviewed.
Drug Interactions via Cytochrome P450
A significant interaction concern arises from the effects of schizonepetin on cytochrome P450 enzymes. Schizonepetin induced the expression of CYP3A1, CYP1A and CYP2E1 at dosages of 24 and 48 mg/kg. Results indicated that schizonepetin had significant induction effects on CYP3A1/2 and inhibition effects on CYP1A2, CYP2E1 or CYP2D6. Moreover, schizonepetin could induce the mRNA expression of CYP3A1, CYP1A and CYP2E1. In conclusion, co-administration of some CYP substrates with schizonepetin may lead to an undesirable herb-drug interaction.
Animal research suggests that schizonepetin, a monoterpene constituent of schizonepeta, induces cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4. Theoretically, schizonepeta might decrease the effects of CYP3A4 substrates. Some substrates of CYP3A4 include lovastatin (Mevacor), ketoconazole (Nizoral), itraconazole (Sporanox), fexofenadine (Allegra), triazolam (Halcion), and numerous others. This interaction has been documented in animal or in lab research, or the interaction has been documented in humans but is limited to case reports or conflicting clinical research.
Schizonepetin from Schizonepeta tenuifolia can affect the pharmacokinetics of certain drugs by altering the activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes, which could lead to clinically significant herb-drug interactions.
Evidence Gaps and Overall Status
The pharmacological effects are mainly reflected as antipyretic effects, antioxidant effects, hypolipemic effects, anti-inflammatory effects, immunomodulatory effects, hemostatic effects, antipruritic effects, antitumor effects, antibacterial effects and antiviral activity. The mechanisms of antipruritic effects, bacteriostasis, antiviral activity, etc. are not systematic and complete, and regulating the signaling pathway to exert pharmacological effects needs further study.
The pharmacological effects are mainly reflected as antipyretic, antioxidant, hypolipemic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, hemostatic, antipruritic, antitumor, antibacterial and antiviral activity. The mechanisms of antipruritic, bacteriostatic, and antiviral activity, etc. are not systematic and complete, and regulating the signaling pathway to exert pharmacological effects needs further study.
References
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