Red spiderling

Red Spiderling (Boerhavia diffusa Linn.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Boerhavia diffusa Linn., commonly known as "Punarnava" or "Red Spiderling," is a perennial herb that belongs to the family Nyctaginaceae. The genus name Boerhaavia was given to honor Hermann Boerhaave, a famous 18th-century Dutch physician, and the species is named diffusa due to its characteristic spreading habit. Within Indian classical literature, the plant goes by several names including Punarnava, Shothaghni, Kathillaka, Varshabhu, Raktapushpa, and Varshaketu.

The common name "red spiderling" reflects the plant's reddish-pink flowers and its slender, web-like creeping stems. Other widespread vernacular names include spreading hogweed, tarvine, and horse purslane.

Morphology and Distribution

Spreading hogweed or Boerhavia diffusa is a flowering plant used in Ayurveda. It is herbaceous and perennial, grows up to 70 cm high, and spreads up to 200 cm wide. It has slender, creeping, and twining stems. The plant features thin stems that can sprawl along the ground or climb over other vegetation. The leaves are green, simple, and alternately arranged along the stems. The flowers are small and usually pink or white, arranged in clusters.

Boerhavia diffusa root extract comes from the roots of the red spiderling plant, a flowering herb that grows in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and South America. It is found throughout Asia, India, the Pacific, and the southern United States. Its small, very sticky fruits that latch onto small migratory birds are considered a main factor for the wide dispersal of this species.

The plant is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions and can thrive in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, wastelands, and along riverbanks.

Plant Parts Used

Various parts of the plant and especially its roots have been used for gastrointestinal, hepatoprotective, and gynecological indications throughout India and other parts of the world. Australian Aborigines have been documented eating the roots of B. diffusa. Leaves and seeds are edible as well when cooked. Fresh leaves and roots are eaten as vegetables in curries and soups by tribal communities, and roots and seeds are added to cereals, pancakes, and other foods as nutrient sources.

Common Dosage Forms and Preparations

Red spiderling (Punarnava) is available as dried root powder, liquid extract (1:2, hydroalcoholic), capsules (300–500 mg), and herbal tea blends. The herb is prepared in decoctions, powders, and pastes to aid in the management of jaundice, edema, urinary disorders, and inflammatory conditions. Ayurvedic formulations containing B. diffusa as a main ingredient include Punarnavasava, Sukumara ghrita, Punarnavadyarishta, Punarnavadi mandura, Sothaghna Lepa, Maha Narayan Taila, Punarnavastaka kvatha curna, Punarnava guggulu, Punarnavadi kvatha curna, and Varuni.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (India)

Boerhavia diffusa, commonly known as "Punarnava," is a revered medicinal herb with deep roots in traditional healing systems, particularly Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. Historically, it has been celebrated for its remarkable ability to rejuvenate and revitalize the body, hence its Sanskrit name "Punarnava," meaning "renewed" or "rejuvenator."

Boerhavia diffusa Linn., categorized as a Rasayana in Ayurveda and belonging to the Nyctaginaceae family, exhibits a diverse range of medicinal properties, including the treatment of conditions such as diabetes, inflammation, stress, hepatotoxicity, jaundice, and heart failure.

In Ayurvedic texts, more than 35 formulations of different types contain it as a major ingredient. In Ayurveda, B. diffusa has been classified as a "rasayana" herb, said to possess properties including antiaging, reestablishing youth, strengthening life and brain power, and disease prevention, all of which imply that they increase the resistance of the body against any onslaught—in other words, providing hepatoprotection and immunomodulation.

It has been used in various formulations meant for inflammation, jaundice, asthma, rheumatism, nephrological disorders, ascites, anemia, and gynecological disorders.

The Sushruta Samhita (4th century CE) recommends Boerhavia diffusa root decoction for mild dropsy and abdominal edema, noting its effectiveness in alleviating water retention. Through medieval Ayurvedic texts like Bhavaprakasha (16th century CE), Punarnava earned a reputation as a "rasayana" (rejuvenator) that revitalizes the body's fluid balance and strengthens muscle tissue.

The Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas used this plant widely for the treatment of many human ailments. Charaka considered it rasayana and Kasahara, whereas Sushruta described its shaka as the best pathyashaka in shotha. Charaka included it in asthapana basti Dravya whereas Sushruta placed it in vata sansamana varga.

Folk and Tribal Medicine (India)

In the Indian subcontinent, indigenous communities and local healers utilize the plant and its components, primarily the roots, followed by the leaves and whole plant, to address jaundice, kidney issues, digestive disorders, heart problems, asthma, eye conditions, urinary issues, and anemia, in addition to forty-six other recorded health concerns.

In tribal medicine of central India, leaf poultices were applied externally for joint aches and swelling—a practice still used by folk practitioners today.

Siddha and Unani Systems

B. diffusa has a long history of use in various traditional systems of medicine, including Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha, where it is often regarded as a safe and efficacious herb for the treatment of liver disorders, inflammation, and kidney-related ailments.

In Sri Lanka's traditional Siddha system, Punarnava was combined with licorice and ginger as part of an herbal formula to treat urinary calculi—something modern researchers later investigated for antiurolithiatic potential.

Africa and the Americas

Boerhavia diffusa is a well-known medicinal plant in traditional Indian medicine as well as other parts of the world, including the Southern American and African continents. It is used in Ayurveda in Asia and Africa as a rejuvenator or "Rasayan" for its antiaging and antioxidant properties.

It is used in traditional medicine as a bitter, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, laxative, and stomachic. It is also used against snakebite, and a decoction of the leaves is used against jaundice.

Traditional Preparations

Traditional remedies often harnessed the diuretic and detoxifying properties of Boerhavia diffusa to help flush toxins, reduce water retention, and promote optimal fluid balance. Additionally, it was highly valued for its anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and adaptogenic effects, making it considered beneficial in addressing joint pain, respiratory conditions, and general fatigue.

In Ayurveda, it is a key component of the classical formulation "Punarnavadi Kwath," used to support renal function and urinary tract health. It is also blended with herbs like Triphala, Gokshura, and Guduchi to amplify its rejuvenating and detoxifying effects.

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3. Key Phytochemical Constituents and Mechanisms of Action

Overall Phytochemical Profile

A total of 180 compounds from the Boerhavia genus have been isolated, of which B. diffusa alone accounts for around 131 compounds, and for most of these it is currently an exclusive source. B. diffusa's phytochemical makeup comprises alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, and saponins, all of which contribute to its various pharmacological properties.

Rotenoids — Boeravinones

The roots of B. diffusa have yielded numerous isolated rotenoids. Among its constituents are a group of compounds termed boeravinones, including boeravinone A, B, C, D, E, and F. Additional members of this series extend to boeravinones G through J, with the full series (A–J) now documented in multiple systematic phytochemical studies. Three rotenoids — boeravinone A, B, and C — along with 3-O-(6′-palmitoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl) sitosterol were isolated and their structures determined by Lami et al. (1990) and Kadota et al. (1989).

The antioxidant activity of methanol extract of B. diffusa has been reported due to the presence of rotenoids — specifically boeravinone G, H, and D. Among the rotenoids, boeravinone G plays the major role, and is also a polyphenolic compound.

Two rotenoids isolated from B. diffusa, boeravinones G and H, have been found to potently inhibit the drug efflux activity of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2), a multidrug transporter responsible for cancer cell resistance to chemotherapy.

Alkaloid — Punarnavine

The plant contains the novel alkaloid punarnavine, which has various significant pharmacological activities. The main chemical ingredients of this plant include alkaloids (punarnavine), rotenoids (boeravinones A to J), and flavones.

Phenolic Glycosides

The roots reportedly contain a phenolic glycoside named punarnavoside. The most widely reported phenolic compounds are punarnavoside, trans-caftaric acid, and boerhavic acid.

Flavonoids

The most widely reported flavonoids include borhaavone, quercetin, and kaempferol. Additional flavonoids reported from the herb include C-methylflavone, 5,7-dihydroxy-3',4'-dimethoxy-6,8-dimethylflavone, 3,5,4′-dihydroxy-6,7-dimethoxyflavone, borhavone, and 4',7-dihydroxy-3'-methylflavone.

Isoflavonoids, Steroids, and Lignans

Further bioactive classes identified include isoflavonoids (notably 2′-O-methyl abronisoflavone), steroids (boerhavisterol, β-Ecdysone), anthracenes, and lignans (liriodendrin, syringaresinol mono-β-D-glucoside).

Other Reported Constituents

Further phytochemical constituents reported from this medicinal herb include hypoxanthine 9-L-arabinofuranoside, hentriacontane, β-sitosterol, hexacosanoic, stearic, palmitic, and arachidic acids, boerhavin and boerhavic acid, and amino acids including arginine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid.

Mechanisms of Action — Key Findings from Preclinical Research

It has been found that B. diffusa extract and its active ingredient luteolin markedly suppress the activation of NF-κB by blocking a series of signaling cascades ranging from Syk/Src to IκBα. A 95% ethanol extract of B. diffusa has been shown to suppress inflammatory response both in vivo (mouse gastritis ulcer model) and in vitro (LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells) in a dose-dependent manner (20 to 200 mg/kg b.w.), comparable to the standard drug ranitidine (40 mg/kg b.w.).

The study further evaluated molecular inhibitory mechanisms behind this immunosuppressive activity. The AP-1 signaling pathway, which is controlled by TRAF6/TAK1, was also inhibited by the extract.

Eupalitin-3-O-β-d-galactopyranoside (Bd-1), isolated and purified from the ethanolic leaf extract of B. diffusa, shows selective immunosuppressive activity.

B. diffusa at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight significantly (p < 0.001) ameliorates increases in serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, oxidative stress, and inflammatory markers. In parallel, it also exhibits antiapoptotic activity through the reduction of active caspase-3 expression in kidneys.

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4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Diuretic Activity

There is abundant evidence of B. diffusa being an important remedy in generalized edema and kidney-liver disorder due to its diuretic and hepatoprotective activities.

Preclinical evidence: Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that B. diffusa possesses diuretic activity among a number of other pharmacological activities. The diuretic action is regarded as one of the most consistently reproduced properties in animal studies.

Evidence strength: The diuretic activity of B. diffusa is well-characterized in animal models. Animal research indicates potential benefits in supporting renal function. Some small-scale clinical studies have explored its diuretic and anti-inflammatory effects in humans, though results are preliminary. Well-designed, adequately powered randomized controlled trials in humans are lacking.

4.2 Hepatoprotective Activity

B. diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), popularly known as "Punarnava" in Ayurveda, is traditionally used for chronic alcoholism and liver dysfunction.

Preclinical evidence: Chandan and co-workers evaluated the 50% aqueous ethanolic extract of B. diffusa whole plant given orally for its hepatoprotective activity in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Chakraborti and co-workers found the hepatoprotective action was evident from reduction in increased levels of serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT), glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT), and alkaline phosphatase in treated rats. They also reported that hepatoprotective activity of a steroid androst-5-ene analogue (200 µg/ml) and a flavone isolated from the aerial parts against CCl4 intoxication in in-vitro models.

Surange and Pendse evidenced that the ethanol extract of root of Boerhavia diffusa has hepatoprotective effect against country-made liquor-induced liver toxicity in albino rats, the protective effect evidenced by reduction of elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT), triglyceride, cholesterol and total lipids in both serum and tissues, and histopathological studies showed marked reduction in fat deposits.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective activity is one of the most extensively studied properties of B. diffusa, with multiple animal-model studies demonstrating significant effects. Formal randomized clinical trials in human patients with liver disease remain absent from the published literature.

4.3 Nephroprotective (Kidney-Protective) Activity

Preclinical evidence: A study was designed to evaluate the nephroprotective role of Boerhaavia diffusa in cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury. Wistar rats (n = 6) were allocated into six groups, with Boerhaavia diffusa root extract administered orally at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg for a period of ten days.

Cisplatin resulted in substantial nephrotoxicity, with significant (p < 0.001) elevation in serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen. B. diffusa at 200 mg/kg significantly ameliorated these changes, and also exhibited antiapoptotic activity through the reduction of active caspase-3 expression in kidneys. Findings indicate that Boerhaavia diffusa is effective in mitigating cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

The aqueous extract of the root of B. diffusa was found to be protective against acetaminophen (200 mg/kg/day for 14 days)-induced kidney injury, an established model of drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

Evidence strength: Nephroprotective activity has been demonstrated in multiple animal models, including cisplatin- and acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity paradigms. Human clinical data remain limited.

4.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Preclinical evidence: A 95% ethanol extract of B. diffusa has been shown to suppress inflammatory response both in vivo (mouse gastritis ulcer model) and in vitro (LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells) in a dose-dependent manner (20 to 200 mg/kg b.w.), comparable to the standard drug ranitidine (40 mg/kg b.w.).

The plant exhibits diverse pharmacological properties, including analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.

Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory activity has been reproduced in multiple in-vitro and in-vivo animal models, with the NF-κB pathway identified as a key target. As with other areas, controlled human trials are lacking and the evidence must be characterized as preclinical.

4.5 Antidiabetic Activity

Preclinical evidence: Research indicates B. diffusa has potential antidiabetic effects, with significant reductions in blood glucose levels in diabetic models.

Oral administration of Boerhavia diffusa at a high dose of 400 mg/kg b.w. reduced blood glucose concentration when observed on the 7th, 14th, and 21st day compared to the negative control (diabetic rats).

Evidence strength: Antidiabetic effects have been demonstrated primarily in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rodent models. No robust, adequately powered human clinical trials are reported in the peer-reviewed literature. The evidence is preliminary and restricted to animal studies.

4.6 Anticancer Activity

Preclinical evidence: This plant has been reported for the inhibition of human cervical cancer, anti-hyperglycaemic and reno-protective effects, antidepressant activity, anticonvulsant and antiepileptic characteristics, chemo-preventive action, inhibitory effect on prostatic hyperplasia, and potent anti-breast cancer activity, among others.

Two rotenoids isolated from B. diffusa, boeravinones G and H, have been found to potently inhibit the drug efflux activity of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2), a multidrug transporter responsible for cancer cell resistance to chemotherapy.

In a study examining the influence of solvents on chemical composition and biological capabilities of B. diffusa, an UHPLC-HRMS method was used for chemical characterization. The biological ability was examined for antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory, and anti-cancer effects. To evaluate antioxidant effects, different chemical methods (ABTS, DPPH, CUPRAC, FRAP, metal chelating, and phosphomolybdenum) were applied; for enzyme inhibitory properties, cholinesterases, amylase, glucosidase and tyrosinase were tested. The MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line was chosen to determine anticancer activity.

Evidence strength: Anticancer studies are predominantly in-vitro (cell line) or in-vivo (rodent) investigations. Most of these studies were either done with crude extract of the plant or with some known isolated compounds. No human clinical trials for oncological indications have been reported. Evidence is early-stage and cannot be considered clinically actionable.

4.7 Immunomodulatory Activity

Many traditional pharmacological uses of B. diffusa such as immunomodulatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antifibrinolytic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antifungal, anticonvulsant, and antioxidant activities have been reported and scientifically validated.

Eupalitin-3-O-β-d-galactopyranoside (Bd-1), isolated and purified from the ethanolic leaf extract of B. diffusa, shows selective immunosuppressive activity. The plant thus demonstrates dual immunomodulatory character — acting as immunostimulant in some contexts (e.g., anti-metastatic) and as an immunosuppressant in others.

Evidence strength: Immunomodulatory activity is documented across multiple studies in cell lines and animal models, but data from human trials are absent.

4.8 Antifibrinolytic Activity

The plant possesses potent antifibrinolytic and anti-inflammatory activities and has been recommended for the treatment of IUD menorrhagia.

Although B. diffusa contains antifibrinolytic punarnavoside, methanol extract of the plant showed significant (P < 0.001) thrombolytic activity compared to the negative control.

4.9 Antioxidant Activity

Based on the scavenging capacity of free radicals (DPPH, NO•), the highest antioxidant activity was found in the methanolic extract of B. diffusa, due to the presence of flavonoids, which are polyphenolic compounds.

4.10 Antihypertensive Activity

Boerhaavia diffusa is reported to possess antihypertensive properties, for which both its angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition and other mechanisms have been investigated. This effect has been explored in preclinical models; clinical confirmation remains elusive.

4.11 Anti-obesity Activity

Research, noting that obesity now affects almost a third of the world's population, has selected the plant Boerhavia diffusa for study due to its different pharmacological actions and traditional use in treating sickness caused by lifestyle modification. Key constituents implicated include boeravinone B, punarnavine, and eupalitin. Evidence remains preclinical (animal models only).

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5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Red Spiderling

• Renal/Urinary System: Most cited uses include kidney problems and urinary issues. Both traditional use (diuresis, urinary calculi, dysuria) and preclinical research in nephroprotection converge on this system as the most robustly studied.
• Hepatic/Gastrointestinal System: Ancient practitioners utilized Boerhavia diffusa most notably for supporting liver and kidney health. Multiple in-vivo animal studies confirm hepatoprotective effects against diverse toxicants including carbon tetrachloride and alcohol.
• Cardiovascular System: The root extract is considered a potential kidney, heart, and liver stimulant. Antihypertensive and cardioprotective effects have been investigated in preclinical models.
• Metabolic/Endocrine System: Antidiabetic activity has been explored in rodent models, with observed reductions in blood glucose and tissue lipids.
• Immune System: Both immunostimulant and immunosuppressant effects have been documented in laboratory settings, reflecting the plant's complex immunomodulatory profile.
• Musculoskeletal System: In tribal medicine of central India, leaf poultices have been applied externally for joint aches and swelling.
• Reproductive System: Reproductive system uses represent some of the most cited applications in ethnopharmacological reports. Antifibrinolytic properties have been documented in relation to menorrhagia management.
• Respiratory System: Due to its diuretic, renoprotective, and laxative properties, it is considered useful in treating asthma and cough.

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6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The documented parts used are the whole plant, root, and leaf. Dosages reported in traditional/Ayurvedic texts include: fresh juice 5–10 ml, powder 1–3 g, and decoction (Kashaya) 50–100 ml in divided doses per day.

In the traditional preparation for dysuria, pedal edema, and urinary obstruction, the roots of Punarnava (15–20 grams) are taken and a decoction is made. This is consumed in a dose of 30–40 ml twice or thrice a day.

In Ayurvedic practice, the typical adult dosage of Punarnava powder (churna) is 3–6 g twice daily. Tablets of standardized extract (Punarnava 250 mg) are given 2 tablets twice daily. Decoction (Kashaya) is used at 40–80 ml twice daily, and syrup form is often dosed at 10–20 ml with water after meals.

In animal pharmacological studies, the following doses have been specifically reported in the literature:

• Boerhaavia diffusa root extract at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight administered orally for 10 days in a cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity model in Wistar rats.
• Oral administration at a high dose of 400 mg/kg b.w. reduced blood glucose concentration in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats when observed on the 7th, 14th, and 21st day.
• A 95% ethanol extract administered in doses ranging from 20 to 200 mg/kg b.w. suppressed inflammatory response in the mouse gastritis ulcer model.

Note on human dosing: No standardized, validated clinical dosage for Boerhavia diffusa as a supplement has been established through robust randomized clinical trials. The dosages above reflect traditional Ayurvedic practice or animal pharmacology studies, not approved clinical guidelines.

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7. Safety Considerations and Notable Interactions

Preclinical Toxicology

The safety profile of Boerhaavia diffusa was evaluated using acute and sub-acute toxicity studies. The no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of the tuberous roots of Boerhaavia diffusa root extract was established at 1000 mg/kg.

Acute and sub-chronic toxicity studies of Boerhavia diffusa leaves in albino mice and rats were investigated. Doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg of the aqueous leaf extract were administered orally. Parameters measured included food and fluid intake, body weight, organ weights, haematological parameters, and tests for liver function. The lethal dose (LD50) was found to be greater than 2000 mg/kg (p.o.) in both mice and rats.

Immunosuppressive Properties — Potential Interaction with Immunotherapy

Eupalitin-3-O-β-d-galactopyranoside (Bd-1), isolated and purified from the ethanolic leaf extract of B. diffusa, shows selective immunosuppressive activity. This documented immunosuppressive effect at the molecular level suggests potential for interaction in individuals on immunosuppressive drugs or those with compromised immune function, though this has not been formally evaluated in human interaction studies.

Antifertility Considerations

Published research keywords associated with B. diffusa explicitly include antifertility benefits. Traditional literature and some research reviews have flagged potential antifertility effects; formal human reproductive safety data are not currently available in the peer-reviewed literature.

Diuretic Drug Interactions

Given its well-documented diuretic properties across both traditional use and animal studies, concurrent use with pharmaceutical diuretics could theoretically produce additive effects on fluid and electrolyte balance. This potential interaction has not been formally characterized in controlled human studies.

Antidiabetic Drug Interactions

Research indicates B. diffusa has potential antidiabetic effects, with significant reductions in blood glucose levels in diabetic models. Use alongside antidiabetic medications could theoretically alter glycemic control, though this has not been clinically studied.

Limitations of the Safety Evidence Base

Despite its widespread traditional use, modern scientific evaluation of its safety profile is crucial to support its transition into evidence-based clinical applications. Although substantial pharmacological data in the literature are available for the Boerhavia genus, many pharmacological activities essentially lack appropriate comparisons with positive controls. Also, the studies carried out were inappropriate with relevant pharmacological doses of active extracts as well as positive controls and their time duration, source of materials used, and minimum effective dose.

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8. Summary of Evidence Quality

B. diffusa has garnered attention for its notable antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antibiotic, antidiabetic, and anticancer qualities among pioneers in the fields of science and medicine. However, the scientific evidence base for the plant's therapeutic use in humans is currently characterized as follows:

• Strongest evidence (animal/in-vitro, multiple replications): Diuretic, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects.
• Moderate preclinical evidence (fewer studies or fewer models): Antidiabetic, antioxidant, antifibrinolytic, and immunomodulatory effects.
• Preliminary/early-stage evidence: Anticancer, antihypertensive, anti-obesity, anticonvulsant, and antidepressant properties.
• Human clinical data: Sparse and largely preliminary. Some small-scale clinical studies have explored its diuretic and anti-inflammatory effects in humans, though results are preliminary.

To accurately identify the specific functions of its bioactive components for multiple pharmacological purposes, additional clinical trials and further research are necessary for its diverse therapeutic applications.

References

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