Oroxylum indicum

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Oroxylum indicum is a species of flowering plant in the monotypic genus Oroxylum, belonging to the family Bignoniaceae. It is commonly called Indian trumpet tree, oroxylum, Indian trumpet flower, broken bones, scythe tree, or tree of Damocles — and, most evocatively, midnight horror. Its genus name Oroxylum derives from the Greek words oros (mountain) and xylon (wood), and its species epithet means "from India."

Oroxylum indicum is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree with light to greyish-brown, porous bark that can reach heights of 12 to 16 metres. It is native to the Indian subcontinent, the Himalayan foothills (with a range extending to Bhutan and southern China), Indochina, and the Malesia regions. It is distributed across India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The leaves are enormous, 90–180 cm in length.

The accepted botanical authority for the name is Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. A synonym encountered in older literature is Oroxylum indicum Vent. The plant is also referred to in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia under its seed drug name Semen Oroxyli, or Mu Hu Die (木蝴蝶), meaning "wooden butterfly," a reference to the flat, papery, wing-shaped seeds. In Ayurveda it is known as Shyonaka or Sonapatha (Sanskrit), the latter meaning "golden path," in reference to the golden-yellow inner bark.

Due to its remarkable therapeutic benefits and the constantly increasing demand on wild populations, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has designated this plant as endangered. Its existence in natural populations is highly threatened, and it has been categorized as an endangered medicinal plant by the Government of India. Restoration of the plant is a major concern; various in vitro conservation strategies — including shoot propagation, somatic embryogenesis, and clonal propagation — have been employed to safeguard the species.

Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

The roots, stem bark, and seeds are the most promising plant parts, and are used in formulations in Indian Ayurvedic, Chinese, and Japanese traditions. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is also a long-standing tradition of consuming the cooked flowers, buds, and young pods as an esteemed vegetable.

• Root and stem bark: Used as dried powder, decoction (kashaya), paste, and alcoholic extract. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API) officially lists both, noting that stem bark may substitute for root bark.
• Seeds (Mu Hu Die): Used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in dried and powdered form, as decoctions, or as standardized extracts. Quality evaluation of Semen Oroxyli collected from multiple Chinese provinces has been carried out using HPLC with multireference standard methods.
• Leaves and fruit: Applied topically as pastes and poultices in traditional use; leaves are also eaten as food in parts of India and Malaysia.
• Standardized extracts: Modern supplement preparations standardize to flavonoid content (principally baicalein and chrysin) via ethanolic, methanolic, or ethyl-acetate extraction.

Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (Indian Subcontinent)

The plant has been used for centuries as an important herbal medicine in many Asian countries to treat various diseases. In Ayurveda, the root bark of Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum Vent.; Bignoniaceae) is one of the ingredients of dashamoola — a canonical group of ten roots — and is used for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic action in a number of compound formulations.

Dashamoola is recognised in classical Ayurvedic texts for its anti-inflammatory, anti-helminthic, anti-bronchitis, anti-leukodermatic, and antirheumatic activities, as well as for the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis. Apart from its role in dashamoola, shyonaka is used as a single drug, both internally and externally, in sotha (inflammation), amavata (rheumatoid arthritis), and various other ailments. It is one of the active ingredients in many important Ayurvedic formulations, including Dasamoolaristam, Dasamoola rasayanam, Amrutaristam, and Chyavanaprasa.

The root and stem bark are used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, erythema, gastralgia, hoarseness, infantile ailments, measles, sore throat, urticaria, snake-bite, and scorpion sting. The fruits and seeds are used as an expectorant, purgative, and bitter tonic. In Indian Ayurvedic medicine, the root bark, stem, and leaf are prescribed for snake bite, diarrhoea, and dysentery.

The decoction of the bark is used to cure gastric ulcers, and the bark paste is applied in treating mouth cancer, scabies, and other skin diseases. Poultice of the bark is topically applied to treat rheumatism, sprains, inflammations, and skin diseases.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In Traditional Chinese Medicine, the seeds of the plant, named Mu Hu Die in Chinese, have been widely used for the treatment of cough, bronchitis, pharyngitis, pertussis, and other respiratory disorders, as recorded in the National Commission of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2010). The seeds have been used as an analgesic, antitussive, and anti-inflammatory agent.

Southeast Asian and Other Traditions

Across Asia broadly, O. indicum has been used for centuries in ethnomedicinal systems for the prevention and treatment of jaundice, arthritic and rheumatic problems, gastric ulcers, tumours, respiratory diseases, diabetes, diarrhoea, and dysentery, among other conditions. Most of the important traditional uses of stem bark and root bark centre on the treatment of jaundice, heart problems, gastric ulcers, diarrhoea, dysentery, and cancers; the seeds are used primarily for respiratory disorders; and the leaves for enlarged spleen and ulcer.

In Malaysia, the plant is commonly known as "pucuk beko," "bonglai," or "bolai kayu," and the leaves are eaten raw as a salad or cooked with coconut milk.

Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Phytochemical investigations of different parts of the plant have resulted in the identification of approximately 111 compounds, among which flavonoids, naphthalenoids, and cyclohexylethanoids are the predominant groups. These include approximately 50 flavonoids, 6 isoflavonoids, 14 naphthalenoids, 3 phenyl ethanoids, 9 cyclohexyl ethanoids, 3 triterpenoids, 4 steroids, 5 stilbenoids, and 17 miscellaneous compounds.

Primary Flavonoid Constituents

Flavonoids are the most abundant constituents of this plant, among which baicalein, chrysin, and oroxylin A are the major chemical constituents of the stem bark. The leading bioactive compounds are baicalein, baicalin, chrysin, oroxylin A, oroxin A, oroxin B, and their derivatives.

• Baicalein (5,6,7-trihydroxyflavone; C₁₅H₁₀O₅): Baicalein is the most abundantly found and dominant active compound of O. indicum, isolated from various parts of the plant including the stem bark, root bark, leaves, fruits, and seeds. It is chemically known as 5,6,7-trihydroxyflavone, a member of the flavone sub-group with a structure based on the 2-phenylchromen-4-one backbone.
• Baicalin (baicalein-7-O-glucuronide): The glycosidic form of baicalein, also found across multiple plant parts.
• Chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone): A major flavone of the stem bark and seeds. Chrysin has been shown to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and histamine release, downregulate NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS, upregulate apoptotic pathways, inhibit angiogenesis and metastasis, and demonstrate anti-glycaemic activity.
• Oroxylin A (5,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone): A methylated flavone. Oroxylin A has been found to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in macrophages, and pretreatment with oroxylin A has been reported to inhibit LPS-induced expressions of COX-2 and iNOS by blocking the binding and transcriptional activation of NF-κB. Its anti-inflammatory response has been found to be partially mediated by increased expression of Nrf2.
• Oroxin A (baicalein-7-O-β-D-glucoside) and Oroxin B (baicalein-7-O-diglucoside): The major glycoside forms found predominantly in the seeds. According to phytochemical studies, the major bioactive constituents in the seeds include chrysin, baicalein, baicalein-7-O-β-D-glucoside (oroxin A), and baicalein-7-O-diglucoside (oroxin B).

Other Notable Compounds

Additional constituents identified from different parts of the plant include apigenin, prunetin, sitosterol, oroxindin, biochanin-A, ellagic acid, baicalein 6- and 7-glucuronides, scutellarein, tetuin, anthraquinone, and aloe-emodin. The plant contains a diverse array of bioactive principles belonging to different chemical classes, including phenolics, terpenoids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and anthocyanins.

Recent phytochemical examination of the stem bark led to the isolation of 29 chemical constituents, including five compounds reported for the first time from this genus: chrysophanol, ipriflavone, pinoresinol diglucopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucofuranoside, and 5-hydroxy-3,7,8,3′,4′-pentamethoxyflavone.

HPLC profiling of various extracts consistently identifies the flavonoid fraction as the most pharmacologically relevant. The major flavonoid compounds detected by HPLC in stem bark extracts are baicalein, chrysin, and oroxylin A, along with the phenolic compound p-coumaric acid. From leaf extracts, LC/MS and NMR have identified chrysin, baicalein, baicalein-7-O-glucoside, baicalein-7-O-diglucoside, chrysin-7-O-glucuronide, baicalein-7-O-glucuronide, and a chrysin-diglucoside.

Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

The pharmacological properties of baicalin and baicalein are attributed to their abilities to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their interaction with various signalling molecules associated with apoptosis, inflammation, autophagy, cell cycle regulation, mitochondrial dynamics, and cytoprotection.

Oroxylin A inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expressions of COX-2 and iNOS by blocking the binding and transcriptional activation of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway. Molecular docking studies have demonstrated interactions between chrysin and baicalein with the active site of COX-1, with binding free energies of −7.88 and −7.26 kcal/mol respectively.

Anticancer Mechanisms

The total flavonoids (TF) are the main active components of O. indicum, containing oroxylin A, oroxylin B, chrysin, chrysin-7-O-β-D-glycosides, and baicalein, and exert antiallergic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumour functions. A PMC-published study specifically examined the mechanism of liver cancer cell death: investigations on the antihepatoma effects of total flavonoids were previously limited, and the study was aimed at investigating antitumour effects and possible molecular mechanisms, providing a theoretical basis for further development of TF as antitumour drugs.

The major bioactive principles, including baicalein, oroxylin A, chrysin, scutellarin, and ellagic acid, have been studied in cancer contexts; among these, baicalein is regarded as the most potent with high anticancer activity against various cell lines. These flavonoids have been reported to exhibit antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects.

Network Pharmacology Analysis

Network pharmacology analysis of O. indicum revealed extremely superb druggability with 41 putative identified target genes; GO, KEGG, and network analyses showed that these targets were associated with inflammatory immunoreactions, cancer, and other biological processes. In summary, O. indicum is predicted to target multiple genes/proteins and pathways that shape a network capable of exerting systematic pharmacological effects.

Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important context for the evidence base: In total, 185 articles have been identified in systematic reviews covering in vitro, in vivo, in silico, and limited human investigations. Most studies are limited to in vitro assays, which show cellular activity; some perform in silico models predicting compound–target interactions; while valuable, these approaches cannot completely establish clinical efficacy.

1. Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (animal) — no published human RCTs specifically on inflammation endpoints.

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of Oroxylum indicum (ethanol extract of stem bark) were studied in Swiss albino mice using multiple methods, including hot plate, acetic acid, and tail immersion tests for analgesic activity, and xylene-induced ear oedema and formalin-induced paw oedema tests for anti-inflammatory activity. Administration of mice with 250 and 300 mg/kg body weight of O. indicum reduced pain and inflammation; the maximum analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities were observed in mice receiving 300 mg/kg body weight of the ethanol extract.

A comparative in vivo study on the Ayurvedic decoction (kashaya) preparation examined both root bark and stem bark in animal models. Results showed significant anti-inflammatory activity of both root bark and stem bark decoction in experimental models. The root bark is one of the ingredients of dashamoola and is specifically used for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic action in Ayurvedic compound formulations.

Regarding mechanism in anti-inflammatory studies, there was marked reduction in TNF-alpha expression in the O. indicum extract group, and the baicalein group showed the most marked cumulative increase in reaction time for tail flick among all intervention groups.

2. Anti-allergic Activity

Evidence level: In vivo and in vitro — no human data.

Oroxylum indicum and Scutellaria baicalensis have been used for centuries as traditional medicines in Asia to treat allergies and asthma. Laboratory investigations of the constituent oroxylin A used both in vivo (animal) and in vitro experimental models. Oroxylin A, a flavone present in both plants, has been reported to inhibit the growth of various cancer cells and to inhibit angiogenesis. Anti-allergic effects were assessed using established animal models of allergy, with results attributed to suppression of histamine release and modulation of immune cell activation.

3. Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: Predominantly in vitro (cell lines) and some animal studies — no approved clinical data.

Modern pharmacological studies suggested that this plant possesses anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunostimulant activities. Studies on isolated baicalein have examined its effects across numerous cancer cell lines. A systematic review comprehensively reported the biological activities and therapeutic potential of baicalein from O. indicum for anti-cancer, antibacterial, anti-hyperglycaemia, neurogenesis, cardioprotective, anti-adipogenesis, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing effects.

A published PMC study investigated total flavonoids from O. indicum in liver cancer, examining apoptosis induction: the total flavonoids, which mainly contain oroxylin A, oroxylin B, chrysin, chrysin-7-O-β-D-glycosides, and baicalein, were studied for antihepatoma effects; investigations on these specific effects and the possible molecular mechanisms were described as previously limited. The study found apoptosis induction via the PI3K/Akt/PTEN signalling pathway in liver cancer cell lines.

Critically, there was noted a scarcity of evidence on the efficacy of baicalein as an active compound in human clinical studies; the systematic review provides insight into O. indicum and baicalein as prospective complementary therapies, but recommends more clinical research to confirm the efficacy and safety of baicalein as therapeutic medicine for patients. All anticancer findings to date are from in vitro and animal models and have not been validated in controlled human trials.

4. Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence level: In vivo (animal models) — limited human data.

From a review of the literature, O. indicum is the third most employed species in the region for the treatment of liver disorders and jaundice. To justify this traditional use, numerous pharmacological activities have been reported, including hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, and analgesic activities.

Crude stem bark extracts of O. indicum demonstrated hepatoprotective properties in vivo against CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity in Swiss albino mice; the ethyl acetate extract was found to give better results than the other crude extracts. A separate study examined the cardioprotective and hepatoprotective potential of methanolic root bark extract in a doxorubicin-induced cardiomyopathy model: a 70% methanolic extract of O. indicum root bark (OIM) was evaluated against doxorubicin-induced cardiomyopathy in female Sprague–Dawley rats, with pre-treatment at doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight for ten days prior to doxorubicin challenge.

Application of the ADO analytical framework to the literature highlighted scientifically validated ethnomedicinal uses, including diabetes and liver protection. However, controlled human clinical trials specifically evaluating hepatoprotection from O. indicum preparations have not been published in the peer-reviewed literature as of the most recent systematic reviews.

5. Antidiabetic Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and in vivo (animal models), with very limited human data.

Baicalein is clustered in bibliometric analysis with terms including acarbose and NF-κB, consistent with its reported antidiabetic activities. In vitro studies have examined inhibition of α-glucosidase and related enzymes. In animal models, extracts have been tested for effects on blood glucose and insulin resistance.

In vitro anti-adipogenic assays using 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and pancreatic lipase (PL) inhibition assays were performed using different extracts of plant materials; the ethyl acetate extract of O. indicum bark was the most active in anti-adipogenesis screening (59.12 ± 1.66% lipid accumulation compared to control at 50 µg/mL) and PL inhibition (89.12 ± 6.87% PL inhibition at 250 µg/mL).

6. Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: In vitro (lab-based) — no human trial data.

Crude extracts and their isolates exhibit a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial activities. Studies have screened bark, seed, and leaf extracts against a range of bacterial and fungal pathogens using standard disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods, with various flavonoids contributing to activity. These findings remain at the laboratory stage.

7. Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and in vivo — no human trial data specifically for antioxidant endpoints.

Flavonoid-rich extracts from multiple plant parts consistently demonstrate significant free-radical scavenging capacity in standard assays (DPPH, ABTS). Baicalein has been frequently associated with liver protection, bone health, neuroprotection, pain relief, anti-obesity, antidiabetic, anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.

8. Neuroprotective and Cognitive Activity

Evidence level: Preliminary — one cited randomized clinical study; evidence is early-stage.

Participants in a cited study reported improved mood, thinking, and memory after 12 weeks at doses of 1,000 mg daily, with no significant adverse effects; together, such studies link laboratory research to human use, although the findings remain preliminary. Gaps including obesity-related studies, long-term safety, and clinical trials remain.

9. Respiratory Conditions

Evidence level: Traditional use well documented; pharmacological evidence is in vitro or animal-based.

O. indicum has been extensively applied to treat cough, pertussis, pharyngitis, acute or chronic bronchitis, and other respiratory disorders. In TCM, the seeds (Mu Hu Die) are specifically pharmacopoeial-listed for treatment of cough, bronchitis, pharyngitis, pertussis, and other respiratory disorders. These uses are supported by the known anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and expectorant properties of key flavonoids in preclinical models, but no controlled human trials on respiratory outcomes have been published.

10. Cardioprotective Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical animal models only.

The cardioprotective potential of root bark methanolic extract was studied in female Sprague–Dawley rats using a doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage model. Oroxylum indicum Vent., a Dasamula plant used in Ayurveda, possesses antioxidant properties considered relevant to cardioprotection. Outcomes measured included ECG changes and serum markers (CPK, LDH) at the two tested doses (200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg). No human cardiac trial data are available.

Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Oroxylum indicum

In vitro and in vivo studies have indicated anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antioxidant, photocytotoxic, antiproliferative, antiarthritic, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, immunostimulant, antidiabetic, hypolipidaemic, ulcerative colitis, and nephroprotective properties.

• Musculoskeletal system: Inflammation, arthritis, rheumatic pain, sprains; root/bark decoctions and pastes used topically and internally.
• Hepatic/Gastrointestinal system: Jaundice, liver protection, gastric ulcers, diarrhoea, dysentery.
• Respiratory system: Cough, bronchitis, pharyngitis, pertussis (primarily seeds/TCM).
• Metabolic/Endocrine system: Diabetes, hyperlipidaemia; preclinical antidiabetic and anti-adipogenic evidence.
• Oncology: Anticancer activity demonstrated across multiple cell lines in vitro.
• Central nervous system: Neuroprotection, cognitive function (preliminary human data).
• Immune system: Immunostimulant, anti-allergic, anti-infective properties.
• Cardiovascular system: Cardioprotective properties in preclinical models.
• Renal system: Nephroprotective properties in preclinical models.

Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research

The following dosages are reported as they appear in specific cited studies. They are not recommendations, and no standardized human dose has been established through formal regulatory review.

• Ethanol extract of stem bark (anti-inflammatory/analgesic mouse studies): The administration of mice with 250 and 300 mg/kg body weight of O. indicum reduced pain and inflammation; the maximum activities were observed at 300 mg/kg body weight.
• Methanolic root bark extract (cardioprotective rat study): A 70% methanolic root bark extract was administered at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight in female Sprague–Dawley rats as a pre-treatment for ten days.
• Standardised bark extract (human cognitive study): Participants reported improved mood, thinking, and memory after 12 weeks at doses of 1,000 mg daily.
• Sub-acute oral toxicity in mice (leaf ethanolic extract): Sub-acute toxicity results demonstrated no lethal effects and no abnormal behavioural changes in mice treated with escalating doses up to a maximum of 500 mg/kg; no significant changes in body weights, relative organ weight, or haematological evaluation were observed.
• Acute toxicity sighting study (flavonoid-enriched fraction): Animals in the sighting study were single-dosed with 5, 50, 300, and 2,000 mg/kg FEF and observed for 14 days; the highest dose at which no mortality was observed in the sighting study (2,000 mg/kg FEF) was used in the acute toxicity study.
• Aqueous root bark extract (acute rat toxicity): When an aqueous extract of the root bark was fed to overnight-fasted Wistar rats at doses ranging from 175 to 5,000 mg/kg body weight, no mortality was observed.

Safety Considerations

General Tolerability

In the sub-acute leaf ethanolic extract study, there were significant differences in urea, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and alanine transaminase (ALT) values, though the levels were still within the acceptable range; histopathological analysis of the liver and kidney tissues revealed no striking lesions.

Hepatotoxicity at High Doses

In preclinical safety studies: the flavonoid-enriched leaf fraction at single and repeated doses up to 2,000 mg/kg in rats did not produce mortality, major organ pathology, or neurotoxicity over 28 days; however, at very high doses (2,000 mg/kg) in rats, some evidence of hepatotoxic changes (including fatty liver) emerged from fruit extracts, suggesting that extremely high exposures — especially from certain plant parts — may carry risk.

Conservation Status and Adulteration Risk

Market surveys have found that the stem bark of Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Family Simarubaceae) is being sold as an adulterant under the name Shyonak. This represents a product quality and safety concern for consumers, as the adulterant has a different chemical profile.

Potential Drug Interactions (Based on Pharmacological Properties)

Based on the documented pharmacological properties of its flavonoid constituents, researchers have noted several potential interaction concerns:

• Anticoagulants: Flavonoids, including chrysin and baicalein, have demonstrated effects on platelet aggregation pathways in preclinical models, raising the theoretical possibility of potentiation of anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin.
• Antidiabetic drugs: Given the preclinical antidiabetic activity of baicalein (including α-glucosidase inhibition), additive hypoglycaemic effects with antidiabetic medications are theoretically possible and have been flagged in pharmacological reviews.
• CYP enzyme inhibition: Multiple flavonoids present in O. indicum are known inhibitors of cytochrome P450 enzymes (particularly CYP1A2 and CYP3A4) in vitro, though the clinical significance of this for O. indicum-specific preparations has not been established in human pharmacokinetic studies.

Special Populations

These components could be useful as sources of modern medicines following future detailed studies to elucidate underlying mechanisms, toxicity, synergistic effects, and clinical trials; attention should also be focused on clinical studies investigating commercial Ayurvedic medicines and other ethnomedicinal preparations in human subjects to confirm the safety and quality of the preparations. Human trial data for pregnant women, children, and individuals with pre-existing liver conditions are absent from the published literature.

Endangered Status and Supply Concerns

Due to its therapeutic benefits and constantly increasing demand, the IUCN has designated Oroxylum indicum as endangered. Restoration is a major concern; proper cultivation or conservation techniques must be implemented. This raises issues of sustainable sourcing for supplement preparations.

Overall Assessment of the Evidence Base

Pharmacological results have supported some traditional medicinal uses of Oroxylum indicum, and several extracts and their isolates have been reported to exhibit interesting pharmacological properties. However, the overall evidence base remains substantially preclinical. Different pharmacological activities have been reported for the plant using the in vitro approach, which needs further validation through in vivo and human clinical trials.

Integration of the evidence separates ethnomedicinal and pharmaceutical research, verified from unsubstantiated claims, and highlights gaps — including insufficient safety data, dose–response studies, and clinical validation. Such findings as exist from human studies are encouraging but remain preliminary; larger, more well-controlled clinical trials are needed.

The plant's flavonoid constituents — principally baicalein, chrysin, and oroxylin A — have well-characterized mechanisms of action at the molecular and cellular level across anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and pro-apoptotic pathways. These components could be useful as sources of modern medicines, but future detailed studies are needed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms, toxicity, synergistic effects, and clinical trials, with attention particularly needed for clinical studies in human subjects to confirm the safety and quality of ethnomedicinal preparations.

References

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• Total Flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum Induce Apoptosis via PI3K/Akt/PTEN Signaling Pathway in Liver Cancer. PMC5832136
• Systematic Elucidation of the Mechanism of Oroxylum indicum via Network Pharmacology. PMC7376406
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