IngredientsScientific name: Onosma bracteatum Wall. (sometimes spelled Onosma bracteata Wall. in older literature and some pharmacological publications; these names refer to the same taxon). The species was formally described by Nathaniel Wallich. It belongs to the family Boraginaceae (the borage family).
The genus Onosma is composed of perennial flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae, with approximately 250 species widely dispersed in temperate, tropical, and subtropical areas. O. bracteatum, commonly known as Gaozaban, Gojivha, or Sedge, is mainly distributed in India and Nepal in high-altitude regions and has spread in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh in the northwestern Himalayas. It is a perennial herb explicitly found in the North-Western Himalayas at altitudes of 3,500–4,500 m.
The plant is a perennial, softly to coarsely hairy herb that grows mainly in the Western Himalayas, often at higher altitudes. In classical Ayurvedic texts it is listed under the name Gojihva, while in Unani literature the name Gaozaban is widely used. It is also known as Sedge in the Middle East.
The herb Gojihva is enumerated in Ayurveda as a vegetable (Shaaka) and is also a medicine in the management of various diseases. The official source of Gojihva as per the Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India is Onosma bracteatum Wall. However, several other botanical sources — including Caccinia glauca Savi, Trichodesma indicum R.Br., Elephantopus scaber L., and Launaea species — are also considered botanical sources of Gojihva by some scholars. This contested identity is a central issue in research and practice, as the plant is considered among controversial drugs in Ayurveda.
The aerial parts — leaves and stems — are the primary medicinal portion, although roots and flowers may also be used in some regional traditions. The leaves, flowers, and seeds of this plant are reported to be used in traditional treatment. The roots are used for coloring foodstuffs, oils, and dyeing wool, and also in medicinal preparations.
Common preparation forms documented in traditional and research contexts include:
Gojihva is mentioned in major Ayurveda classics, but a comprehensive data compilation regarding its synonyms, properties, and uses has not been systematically organized. It is one of the main ingredients for the preparation of drugs in both the Unani and Ayurvedic medicinal systems, and has been widely used as a tonic, cooling and antipyretic agent, and to treat diseases of the chest and lungs, asthma, throat troubles, and stomatitis.
In traditional Ayurvedic and indigenous practice, the leaves, flowers, and seeds are reported as acrid, cooling, and useful in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, stomatitis, throat troubles, diseases of the chest and lungs, ophthalmic conditions, gingivitis, insanity, gonorrhea, leprosy, and to allay thirst. The plant is also considered useful in relieving functional palpitation of the heart, irritation of the stomach and bladder, eye and blood diseases, abdominal pain, strangury, itch, leukoderma, fever, wounds, burns, piles, and urinary calculi.
In classical Ayurvedic texts (Samhitas), Gojihva is associated with more than 20 indications, including wound treatment (Vistravan in Vrana), tongue and mouth diseases (Jihwa Roga, Mukha Roga), skin diseases (Kushtha), wound healing (Vrana Ropana), fever (Jwara), snake and animal bites (Sarpa Vish, Lutta Vish), heart disease (Hridya Roga), cough (Kasa), asthma (Shwasa), rhinitis (Pratishyaya), and urinary disorders (Prameha, Mutrakricha).
The plant is known as Gaozaban in the Unani system and has been documented as a major ingredient in Unani drug preparations, used as a tonic, cooling and antipyretic agent, and for respiratory conditions. According to early literature, the aerial part of Gojihva was traditionally known for the treatment of asthma and bronchitis and was imported from Iran. The plant is used traditionally in Unani practice for heart problems, respiratory problems, urinary problems, fever, toxicity, and related diseases.
Many plant species in the genus Onosma have been documented as important in communities worldwide, as evidenced by numerous records of traditional medicinal and ethnobotanical use. Various species of the genus are used in the traditional medicinal systems of Europe and Asian countries, especially India, China, Turkey, and Pakistan.
A practical challenge is that several different plants may be sold under names like Gojihva or Gaozaban in markets. This means correct botanical identification and reliable sourcing are essential for anyone using Onosma bracteatum therapeutically.
The bioactive constituents present in the genus Onosma include benzoquinones, naphthazarins, alkaloids, phenolics, naphthoquinones, and flavonoids, whereas shikonins and onosmins are the most significant. More specifically for O. bracteatum, the plant contains a variety of glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, and carbohydrates; other potential components are ketones, alkaloids, lipids, naphthoquinones, naphthazarins, and flavones including shikonins and onosmins.
Across the genus Onosma, more than 200 chemical compounds have been detected, including naphthoquinones (33), flavonoids (30), hydrocarbons (23), phenolics (22), esters (17), alkaloids (20), aromatics (12), carboxylic acids (11), fatty acids (9), and terpenoids (10); the most important among these include rosmarinic, ferulic, protocatechuic, chlorogenic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acids, and apigenin.
Phytochemical investigation of Onosma bracteatum Wall. revealed three new compounds as well as thirty-four known compounds — a total of 37 — all isolated from this plant for the first time. Their structures were determined by means of extensive spectroscopic analysis including UV, IR, HRESIMS, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, COSY, HSQC, and HMBC.
HPLC phytochemical analysis of an ethanolic extract of O. bracteata identified catechin, epicatechin, Onosmin A, rutin, and kaempferol as major phytoconstituents.
During bioassay-guided isolation from O. bracteatum, two known benzoquinones — allomicrophyllone and ehretiquinone — along with three novel benzoquinones designated ehretiquinones B–D were isolated.
The plant contains various bioactive compounds such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids, flavonoids, and triterpenoids, which are considered responsible for its medicinal properties. The leaves contain lycopsamine and supindine viridiflorate as the predominant unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Flowers contain choline, glucose, fructose, amino acids, and tannin. Seeds contain protein and oil; the seed oil is one source of gamma-linolenic acid and linoleic acid.
An HPTLC–MS method has been developed and validated for the simultaneous estimation of the epimers (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin in Onosma bracteatum Wall. Resolving these epimers is analytically challenging and required optimization of the stationary and mobile phases; HPTLC–MS was performed to increase the reliability of densitometric results.
Mechanisms proposed for O. bracteatum activity are derived entirely from in vitro and animal studies; no mechanistic data in humans have been published as of current literature.
In the hepatoprotective study, immunohistochemical and Western blotting analyses revealed that treatment with the ethanolic extract of O. bracteata downregulated expression of p53 and cyclin D in hepatocytes, and downregulated p-NF-κB, COX-2, and p53. This implicates inhibition of the NF-κB inflammatory signaling cascade and COX-2 as central mechanisms.
Elevated IL-6 and TNF-α exacerbate C-reactive protein (CRP) production; the aqueous-ethanolic extract of O. bracteatum leaves (AeOB) probably reduces CRP levels by reducing IL-6 and TNF-α, demonstrating systemic inflammation suppression.
Active polyphenols in the plant act as scavengers of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as DNA protective agents, and help maintain expression of genes and proteins that break down toxins and keep cellular redox homeostasis. These polyphenols also display antioxidant, antimutagenic, and chemopreventive properties that may protect genomic stability.
The effect of Onosma bracteatum Wall. extract on degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells was found to be significant, exhibiting inhibitory effect in immunologically induced degranulation. This mechanism may underlie the traditional anti-asthmatic and anti-allergic uses.
Pharmacological studies on O. bracteatum have reported acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity and NADH oxidase inhibitory activities. The AChE inhibition mechanism is proposed to underlie putative cognitive and neuromodulatory effects.
The antiaging benzoquinone-type molecule ehretiquinone, isolated from Onosma bracteatum Wall., has been studied for its antiaging effect and mechanism using yeasts, mammal cells, and mice. Ehretiquinone extends not only the replicative lifespan but also the chronological lifespan of yeast and the yeast-like chronological lifespan of mammal cells. Antioxidative stress and autophagy induction are the proposed mechanisms.
Most of what is known scientifically about Onosma bracteatum comes from in vitro work (cell and tissue studies) and in vivo research in animals, not from human clinical trials. Studies on the Onosma genus are still not fully explored; researchers need to discover novel products with toxicity studies, molecular mechanisms, and associated side effects. Future exploration of potent constituents and clinical trials are required to explore its pharmacological importance.
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal models only); no human clinical trials.
A 2024 study evaluated the anti-arthritic effects of the aqueous-ethanolic extract of O. bracteatum leaves (AeOB) in a rat model of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis, building on traditional use of the plant for management of arthritis. Rats were treated with AeOB (250, 500, and 750 mg/kg), indomethacin (10 mg/kg), or vehicle control from days 8 to 28 post-CFA injection. Arthritic score, paw diameter, and body weight were monitored at regular intervals; X-ray radiographs and histopathological analysis were performed; and inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and CRP were quantified by qPCR and chromatography. Phytochemical analysis of AeOB revealed alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, saponins, and glycosides.
The antioxidant experiment showed that AeOB had free-radical-scavenging potential, with IC50 concentrations determined as 73.22 µg/mL for AeOB versus 39.61 µg/mL for ascorbic acid as standard. The extract was found to probably reduce CRP levels by reducing IL-6 and TNF-α, indicating suppression of systemic inflammation.
Earlier research by Patel et al. (2011) studied the plant using multiple experimental allergic and inflammatory models. Experimental models studied included vascular permeability induced by acetic acid, carrageenan-induced hind-paw edema, passive paw anaphylaxis, passive cutaneous anaphylaxis, and allergic pleurisy.
Limitation: No scientific data are available on in vivo anti-inflammatory or anti-arthritic activity of O. bracteatum Wall. in humans; the cited animal studies represent initial mechanistic investigations.
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal model); no human clinical trials.
A study published in Frontiers in Pharmacology (2020) explored the hepatoprotective potential of an ethanolic extract (Obeth) from O. bracteata aerial parts against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic damage in male Wistar rats. Obeth showed effective radical quenching activity with an EC50 of 115.14 µg/mL (superoxide radical scavenging) and 199.33 µg/mL (lipid peroxidation inhibition), along with plasmid DNA protective potential.
In in vivo studies, pretreatment of Obeth at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg normalized the biochemical markers aggravated by CCl4 (1 mL/kg body weight), including liver antioxidative enzymes. Histopathological analysis also revealed the restoration of CCl4-induced liver histopathological alterations. Immunohistochemical studies showed that Obeth treatment downregulated the expression levels of p53 and cyclin D in hepatocytes, and Western blotting analysis revealed downregulation of p-NF-κB, COX-2, and p53.
The investigation established the hepatoprotective and chemopreventive potential of O. bracteata against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity via the antioxidant defense system and modulation of expression of proteins associated with carcinogenesis in hepatic cells.
Limitation: Findings are limited to a rodent chemical-induced injury model. No human data exist.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and in vivo); no human clinical trials.
In antioxidant assays, the ethanolic extract (Obeth) showed strong radical scavenging activity with EC50 of 115.14 µg/mL in a superoxide radical scavenging assay and lipid peroxidation inhibition with EC50 of 199.33 µg/mL. Obeth also modulated mutagenicity of 2-aminofluorene (2AF) in the pre-incubation mode of investigation (EC50 10.48 µg/0.1 mL/plate) in the TA100 strain of Salmonella typhimurium.
The antioxidant capacity has been attributed to the polyphenolic constituents identified by HPLC. Active polyphenols in the plant act as scavengers of ROS, DNA protective agents, and help maintain cellular redox homeostasis; these polyphenols have antioxidant, antimutagenic, and chemopreventive properties that help conserve genomic integrity.
Evidence level: Preliminary (yeast model and mammalian cell cultures); no human clinical trials.
A study published in Molecules (2019) investigated anti-aging molecules from Onosma bracteatum Wall. using bioassay-guided isolation. Two known benzoquinones — allomicrophyllone and ehretiquinone — along with three novel benzoquinones (ehretiquinones B–D) were isolated. The anti-aging potential of the isolated benzoquinones was evaluated through a yeast lifespan assay; the results indicated that compounds 1, 2, 4, and 5 significantly extended the replicative lifespan of K6001 yeast, indicating that these benzoquinones have the potential to be employed as therapeutic agents against age-related diseases.
Limitation: Yeast lifespan assays and mammalian cell-culture experiments are extremely distant from establishing clinical anti-aging effects in humans. No in vivo mammalian aging studies or any human data have been published.
Evidence level: Early preclinical (isolated tissue/organ preparations); no modern controlled trials in animals or humans.
The earliest formal pharmacological investigation of O. bracteatum was published by Dandiya and Arora in 1957 in the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. The actions of a dealcoholized, detannated extract of the drug on the cardiovascular system and smooth muscle were studied; the extract was found to lower blood pressure, depress the heart, and possess spasmolytic action. It is also described in traditional records as useful in relieving functional palpitation of the heart and irritation of the stomach and bladder.
Limitation: The 1957 Dandiya and Arora study represents preliminary preclinical work under methodology standards of that era; it has not been replicated in modern controlled studies. No human cardiovascular data are available.
Evidence level: Preclinical (rodent behavioral models); no human clinical trials. Note: at least one related study in this area has been retracted.
One study was carried out to assess the anxiolytic and antidepressant properties of Onosma bracteatum; male Swiss albino mice were fed orally with hydroalcoholic extract at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg, 1 hour prior to testing with standard comparators diazepam and fluoxetine. Anxiolytic and antidepressant activities were evaluated using the open field test, elevated plus maze, forced swimming test, and tail suspension test. Results showed an increase in line crossings and rearing in a dose-dependent manner; results of the elevated plus maze showed an antianxiety effect by increasing time spent in open arms and decreasing time in closed arms in a dose-dependent way.
Note: The search literature indicates that at least one paper in this area carries a retraction notice; its findings should be interpreted with caution.
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal model); no human clinical trials.
A study evaluated the psychoimmunomodulatory effects of O. bracteatum on a stress model in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats by assessing changes in behavior and immunity, as well as biochemical changes. In stress control, results indicated that percentage alternation, retention transfer latency, total leukocyte counts, and spleen/liver size decreased, while acquisition transfer latency, total paw edema, kidney size, AChE activity, and blood glucose increased — with agglutination disappearing — compared with normal control.
The extract of O. bracteatum showed a protective effect against stress-induced impaired immune function and psychological processes such as memory, supporting the traditional usage of Onosma Gaozaban for treatment of various conditions.
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal model); no human clinical trials.
O. bracteatum showed potent analgesic activity by inducing a significant increase in the latency period in a dose-dependent manner at different doses at 1, 2, and 3 hours (with superiority of 500 mg/kg, i.e., 258.9% increase at 3 h post-feeding).
Evidence level: In vitro only.
Phytochemical profiling, antioxidant capacity, and antibacterial properties of an ethanolic extract of Onosma bracteatum were examined. The extract was prepared in 80% ethanol; antibacterial potential was investigated against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. To evaluate anticancer potential, a MTT cytotoxicity assay was performed against Ln-18 (human malignant glioma) and A-549 (human lung cancer) cell lines. GC-MS identified ethyl oleate, hexadecanoic acid, and phytol as the highest compounds.
Evidence level: In vitro (cancer cell lines) only; no human clinical trials.
Modern research has demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological effects of different species of the Onosma genus, including anti-diabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective activities. For O. bracteatum specifically, antiproliferative assays have been conducted in cancer cell line models; however, findings remain at the cell-culture stage. Several reports have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory activity of O. bracteatum and its significant inhibitory effect against diseases caused by inflammation, including asthma, allergies, and cancer.
Limitation: No animal tumor models or human clinical oncology trials have been published for this species. All anticancer data are in vitro.
Evidence level: In vitro.
The effect of Onosma bracteatum Wall. extract on degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells and cell inhibitory effect in immunologically induced degranulation of mast cells was found to be significant. The hydroalcoholic extract of O. bracteatum Wall. exhibited an antiproliferative effect against rat peritoneal mast cells.
The plant has a traditional use for urinary problems. Research into diuretic potential of O. bracteata as a species of the controversial drug Gojihva has been undertaken, though available published findings are limited in scope.
The following dosages are reported strictly as used in cited scientific studies; none constitutes a clinical recommendation.
No standardized dosage for human use has been established by any regulatory body or pharmacopoeia for Onosma bracteatum as an isolated supplement ingredient.
The most significant documented safety concern for Onosma bracteatum is its content of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). Research literature identifies that Onosma bracteatum contains toxic PAs of the lycopsamine type, similar to other Onosma species. The leaves specifically contain lycopsamine and supindine viridiflorate as the predominant unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a class of natural toxins with hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. They are toxic components widely found in food and herbal products. PAs containing plants can be used as medicine due to the lack of acute toxicity, but they serve as long-term toxicants because it takes a long period between uptake of toxic compounds and the outbreak of toxic symptoms.
Based on pharmacopoeia-referencing reports, Onosma bracteatum has not yet been fully investigated for its individual PA profile; however, it is assumed to contain toxic PAs of the lycopsamine type similar to other Onosma species.
Several different plants may be sold under the names Gojihva or Gaozaban in markets, making correct botanical identification and reliable sourcing essential for anyone using Onosma bracteatum therapeutically. Gojihva is considered among controversial drugs, with multiple botanical sources attributed to it by different scholars.
There are still almost no high-quality clinical trials in humans, so the safety profile as well as the efficacy profile remain to be fully characterized. Studies on the Onosma genus are still not fully explored; researchers need to discover novel products with their toxicity studies, molecular mechanisms, and associated side effects.
Modern clinicians in Ayurvedic and Unani systems still use Onosma bracteatum, but usually after careful assessment of the person's overall constitution, digestion, and coexisting diseases.
The dealcoholized detannated extract of the drug has been shown to lower blood pressure, depress the heart, and possess spasmolytic action. These pharmacological effects on the cardiovascular system, while part of the traditional therapeutic rationale, also raise potential concerns when used in combination with antihypertensive or cardiac medications, though no formal drug interaction studies in humans have been conducted.
The Onosma species are reported as traditional medicines for wound healing, heart disease, and kidney disorders, while pharmacological investigations have revealed that extracts and phytochemicals of Onosma species have different therapeutic properties including antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory, antitumor, hepatoprotective, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial actions. However, the translation of these findings to clinical practice faces major barriers.
The studies on the Onosma genus are still not fully explored; researchers need to discover novel products with toxicity studies, molecular mechanisms, and associated side effects. Future exploration of potent constituents and clinical trials are required to establish pharmacological importance.
Key unresolved research priorities include: (1) full characterization of the PA content and quantification of lycopsamine-type alkaloids; (2) toxicological dose-finding in standardized animal models; (3) pharmacokinetic studies; (4) randomized controlled clinical trials in any indication; and (5) standardization of botanical identification to distinguish O. bracteatum from adulterants sold under the same traditional names.
Health conditions that Onosma bracteatum may help support.
Body systems that Onosma bracteatum may help support.
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