Mustard

Mustard (Sinapis alba, Brassica nigra, Brassica juncea)

1. Identity: Botanical Names, Natural Sources, and Common Forms

1.1 Taxonomy and Botanical Identity

The term "mustard" encompasses the seeds of three principal species: Sinapis alba (white or yellow mustard), Brassica juncea (brown mustard), and Brassica nigra (black mustard). Amongst the approximately 40 species of mustard plants in the Brassicaceae family, these three types, derived from the genera Sinapis and Brassica, are mainly commercially cultivated throughout the world. White mustard may also be referred to by the scientific names Brassica alba L. and Brassica hirta Moench.

The key difference among these species lies in their dominant glucosinolates: S. alba produces mainly sinalbin, which hydrolyzes to p-hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate (p-HBITC), while S. nigra and B. juncea are rich in sinigrin, the precursor of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC). These differences are important because isothiocyanates vary in antimicrobial activity, irritant effect, and safety.

The word "mustard" is derived from mustum ardens, a Latin term that referred to a combination of ground mustard seeds with must (the juice of unripe grapes), translating to "burning must."

1.2 Common Forms and Preparations

Mustard plants are commonly consumed as edible oils, condiments, sauces, fermented vegetables, or salad greens. The seeds themselves are commercially available and used in several distinct preparations:

• Whole seeds: Mustard seeds are small, round seeds approximately 1–2 mm in diameter, and may be colored from yellowish white to black.
• Ground powder/flour: Seeds are milled into a powder from which prepared mustard condiment, seed flour, and seed bran fractions are derived.
• Fixed oil: Pressing the seeds of the mustard plant yields an oil popularly used in cooking or as a condiment in countries including China, India, and Russia. However, mustard oil is banned for edible consumption in the European Union, United States, and Canada because of its erucic acid content.
• Mustard plasters (poultices): To make a mustard plaster, equal parts of flour and powdered mustard are mixed and spread as a paste on a doubled piece of soft cloth, then applied to the affected area for a maximum of 15 minutes.
• Essential/volatile oil: A pungent odour is noticeable when seeds are moistened with water, owing to the formation of volatile oil of mustard, which is colourless or pale yellow, with an intensely penetrating odour and a very acrid taste.
• Pharmacopeial recognition: Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), the seeds of Sinapis alba Linn have been used in China as a spice and medicine, and the species is now included in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Prehistoric and Ancient Origins

Recent discoveries suggest that use of mustard dates back more than 5,000 years; in 2013, a Neolithic pot dated as 6,100 years old was found to contain the remains of meat fats and garlic mustard seeds. By 5000 BCE, mustard cultivation had independently emerged across multiple regions: northwest China, the Indian subcontinent (c. 4000 BCE), and later Bronze Age Switzerland (c. 2500 BCE).

Sanskrit texts from 3000 BCE reference "sarshapa" in cuisine, medicine, and ritual. Ancient Egypt incorporated mustard into culinary preparations and placed seeds in Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb, demonstrating its cultural significance. Assyrian texts (c. 900 BCE) document cultivation in Mesopotamia, while Phoenician maritime traders (c. 800 BCE) distributed mustard throughout Mediterranean settlements.

2.2 Ancient Greece and Rome

Pythagoras (c. 600 BCE) recommended mustard poultices for scorpion stings, and Hippocrates (c. 400 BCE) employed it for lung infections, establishing therapeutic traditions that would persist for millennia. The Greeks and Romans used mustard as a medicine, considering it as a cure for such contrasting maladies as hysteria, snakebite, and bubonic plague. It was the Romans who arguably first transformed the mustard seed into a precursor of the modern condiment, grinding the seeds and mixing them with must (unfermented grape juice), creating a pungent, sour paste.

2.3 Ayurvedic Medicine (India)

Ancient texts from India, mainly the Ayurveda, contain prescriptions written 5,000 years ago providing mustard (raajikaa) seed preparations for internal diseases such as enlargement of the liver and the spleen, as a laxative, and to purge toxins from the body. The seeds were applied externally, mainly for relieving inflammation, skin diseases, mucus flow, and arthritic problems and for stimulating hair growth over the scalp. For centuries, mustard has been part of Ayurvedic medicine in India, combining medicine, religion, and philosophy.

2.4 Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese folk remedies used mustard for centuries for the treatment of cough and asthma, chest pain, nausea and vomiting, numbness, and bruised tissues. In Chinese traditional medicine, mustard seeds are considered an excellent food preservative, a potent anti-cancer agent, and a protector against prostatic hyperplasia.

2.5 Korean and Turkish Traditional Medicine

In Korea, seeds were used as a remedy for abscesses, colds, rheumatism, and stomach disorders. Mustards were used in Turkish traditional medicine to counteract sharp, burning nerve pain.

2.6 European and North African Traditions

In Nepal, generations of infants have been massaged with mustard oil to protect the skin and stimulate warmth. Healers in ancient Egypt used it as a medicine, as did practitioners from China to North Africa, and the Romans regarded mustard as both condiment and healing ointment. The Romans are believed to have brought mustard to France, and by the 12th century it had spread to Germany and England. The Spaniards introduced mustard to the Americas, and in California there was a legend that a priest, Father Junipero Serra, would scatter black mustard seeds to mark the routes from monastery to monastery.

Mustards have been used in traditional folk medicine as a stimulant, diuretic, and purgative, and to treat a variety of ailments including peritonitis and neuralgia. They are still used today in mustard plasters to treat rheumatism, arthritis, chest congestion, aching back, and sore muscles.

The seeds have been claimed throughout history to stimulate and aid digestion, soothe sore throats, and aid recovery from bronchitis and pneumonia.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Glucosinolates

Mustard plants are reported for their richness in bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates, polyphenols, dietary fiber, β-carotene, and ascorbic acid. Glucosinolates are amino-acid-derived compounds produced in the secondary metabolism of the Brassicaceae genus. Those found in Brassica plants include sinigrin (in Brassica nigra — black mustard seeds) and sinalbin (from Sinapis alba — white mustard seeds).

Mustard seed contains glucosinolates which are converted to isothiocyanates following cell disruption by the enzyme myrosinase. Isothiocyanates are sulphur-containing compounds which give a pungent flavour to the mustard condiment.

3.2 Isothiocyanates — The "Mustard Bomb"

Mustard species mitigate a wide range of biotic challenges using the glucosinolate-myrosinase system, also referred to as 'The Mustard Bomb.' AITC is stored stably in the plant as its precursor sinigrin (a type of glucosinolate), which is physically separated from myrosin cells containing myrosinase. Upon tissue disruption, myrosinase is released and hydrolyzes sinigrin to produce AITC and by-products.

AITC is an organosulfur compound — both an irritant and toxic at high levels — but it carries pharmacological properties, including anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory activities. The formation of AITC in mustard seed is mediated by the myrosinase enzyme, which catalyzes the release of volatile AITC from the glucosinolate sinigrin. Since water is a substrate in the reaction, humidity from the air can be used to activate the release of AITC from mustard seed.

The principal isothiocyanates differ by species: S. alba produces mainly sinalbin, which hydrolyzes to p-HBITC, while S. nigra and B. juncea are rich in sinigrin, the precursor of AITC.

3.3 Phenolic Compounds and Flavonoids

A total of 26 compounds (phenolic acids, flavonoids, and glucosinolates) have been identified in mustard samples. Sinapis alba, including the bran fraction, is richer in p-hydroxybenzoic, ferulic, and p-coumaric acids compared to Brassica juncea. Isothiocyanate metabolites, together with flavonoids and tocopherols, present anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities.

3.4 Fatty Acids and Erucic Acid

Mustard oil, extracted from the seeds, contains both beneficial unsaturated fatty acids but may also contain erucic acid. Erucic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid present in the oil-rich seeds of the Brassicaceae family of plants, particularly rapeseed and mustard. Although natural forms of rapeseed and mustard contain high levels of erucic acid (over 40% of total fatty acids), levels in rapeseed cultivated for food use are typically below 0.5%.

3.5 Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids found in mustard seeds are useful for their pharmacologic effects against sleep disorders, anxiety, cerebrovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes, according to a synthesis of published literature.

3.6 Other Constituents

The chemical profile of Sinapis alba seeds also includes proteins, essential oils, and minerals. Other compounds — such as bisphenol F, erucic acid, and allergens — may also occur in the seeds and in mustard products intended for human consumption.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Pathways

Allyl isothiocyanate inhibits the enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). In animal models, AITC also lowers the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α and IL-6. The presented data from a 2026 narrative review highlight that mustard-derived products suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and inhibit a broad spectrum of pathogens at micromolar concentrations.

Central to the antioxidant effect of mustard-derived isothiocyanates is activation of the Nrf2–Keap1 pathway, a master regulator of cellular antioxidant response.

4.2 Antimicrobial Mechanism

Upon enzymatic hydrolysis, glucosinolates are converted into isothiocyanates such as allyl isothiocyanate, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against oral and gastrointestinal pathogens. Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is described as a wide-spectrum antimicrobial compound found in mustard seeds, produced when their tissues are disrupted.

4.3 Sensory Activation (TRPA1)

The allyl isothiocyanate derived from sinigrin in mustard seeds activates receptors in the tongue. The body contains nerve cells (receptors) sensitive to certain stimuli, including certain molecules, causing messages to be sent to the brain. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) cation channels are a group of such receptors that, when activated, permit the flow of ions across the membrane and instigate the signal. Activation of TRPA1 channels by AITC contributes both to the perceived pungency of mustard and to some of its pain-modulating properties. Transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1)-activating potency can be triggered by most isothiocyanates.

4.4 Anticancer Mechanisms

In cell-line studies, Brassica nigra extract showed a substantial growth-inhibitory effect as it reduced the viability and clonogenic survival of human lung cancer cells (A549 and H1299) in a concentration-dependent manner, and induced cellular apoptosis in a time- and concentration-dependent fashion as evidenced from increased caspase-3 activity. Based on cell cycle analysis, B. nigra extract significantly arrested A549 and H1299 cells at S and G2/M phases. Additionally, the extract suppressed migratory and invasive properties of both cell lines, downregulating matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), MMP9, and Snail, and upregulating E-cadherin at mRNA and protein levels.

4.5 Myrosinase Enzyme Activity and Bioavailability

The hydrolysis of glucosinolates by the myrosinase enzyme (thioglucoside glucohydrolase EC 3.2.3.2) produces a relevant number of biologically active compounds, such as isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, nitriles, and epithionitriles. Heat can compromise this conversion: temperatures above 67°C decrease sinigrin conversion to AITC in hydrated ground B. juncea seed. A clinical study demonstrated the practical significance of myrosinase activity: in a randomized, double-blind, crossover study of sixteen subjects, a single oral dose of glucoraphanin in broccoli seed extract co-administered with myrosinase-containing mustard seed powder, on average, doubled the bioavailability of sulforaphane (39.8%) compared to glucoraphanin alone (18.6%), and increased the conversion rate in the first 8 hours.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Antimicrobial Activity

An in vitro study concluded that mustard seed extract has potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity against a variety of oral microorganisms. The species tested included Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Enterococcus faecalis, and Candida albicans; results showed that the anti-inflammatory property of mustard seed extract is comparable to diclofenac sodium, and the maximum zone of inhibition was seen against C. albicans. These properties could potentially be harnessed in the form of a hydrogel to help treat periodontitis, though further animal studies need to be done followed by clinical studies to evaluate cytotoxicity and effectiveness.

Evidence strength: Currently limited to in vitro studies. No controlled human clinical trials on mustard as an antimicrobial agent have been published.

5.2 Anti-Inflammatory Effects

A 2026 narrative review of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies highlights that mustard-derived products suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and inhibit a broad spectrum of pathogens at micromolar concentrations. In the largest (n = 113) double-blind dental trial to date, a white-mustard toothpaste reduced the mean value of Silness-Löe plaque index by −2.43.

Isothiocyanate metabolites, together with flavonoids and tocopherols, present anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities, as reported in a narrative review based on a literature search in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, spanning in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies.

Evidence strength: Mechanistic evidence is well-established (COX-2 inhibition, NF-κB/Nrf2 pathway activation) from cell-line and animal studies. Human clinical evidence is limited and largely confined to oral health applications; large, independent randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in other inflammatory conditions are lacking.

5.3 Anticancer Activity

Since the Tang dynasty, the seeds of Sinapis alba have been used in China as a spice as well as a medicine and are now included in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China. In Chinese traditional medicine, mustard seeds are considered a potent anti-cancer agent. Components of mustard seeds were shown to possess anticancer activity by decreasing the incidence of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced skin cancers and their trans-placental and trans-lactational spreading in Swiss albino mice.

Findings from cell-line research indicate that B. nigra seed extract may have important anticancer potential against human lung cancer cells, mediated through simultaneous and differential regulation of proliferation, apoptosis, DNA damage, cell cycle, migration, and invasion. A combined treatment of phenethyl isothiocyanate (derived from glucosinolate gluconasturtiin) with conventional anticancer drugs exhibited a synergistic antiproliferative effect on myeloma tumor cell lines.

Evidence strength: Anticancer evidence is predominantly preclinical (in vitro cell lines and rodent models). Despite promising anticancer effectiveness of AITC, its clinical application still faces challenges due to low aqueous solubility, instability, and low bioavailability. No published human RCTs specifically evaluating mustard seed preparations as anticancer agents have been identified.

5.4 Cardiovascular and Cholesterol-Lowering Effects

Glucosinolates and omega-3 fatty acids from mustard are widely reported in the literature for their potential health benefits, including reducing inflammation and lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In a rodent model, supercritical CO₂ extracts of yellow mustard seed were co-administered orally with Triton X to Wistar albino rats. On day 21, total cholesterol levels reduced by 49.44% in rats treated with yellow mustard seed extract, comparable with atorvastatin-administered rats (51.09%). Either extract demonstrated inhibitory effects on hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activity. A molecular docking exercise identified specific compounds in the extracts which possessed binding affinities comparable with therapeutically used HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. In silico and in vivo studies concertedly concluded that these extracts could be safely subjected to clinical studies as preventive biotherapeutics for hypercholesterolaemia.

Although mustard seeds have been used in folklore medicine to treat several ailments including heart diseases, scientific investigation on pharmacological actions related to cardioprotective activity has not been adequately carried out. There is also a dearth of scientific evidence pointing towards the cardioprotective activity of B. juncea.

Evidence strength: Evidence for lipid-lowering and cardiovascular protection is limited to animal and in silico studies. Human clinical trial data are absent or insufficient.

5.5 Oral Health

In the largest double-blind dental trial to date (n = 113), a white-mustard toothpaste reduced the mean value of the Silness-Löe plaque index by −2.43 compared to control. Preliminary clinical evidence supports the use of mustard-derived compounds in oral care.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; one double-blind dental trial represents the strongest human evidence in this category, and independent replication is needed.

5.6 Myrosinase as a Nutraceutical Enzyme Adjunct

Inactive glucoraphanin (GR) in broccoli is converted to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial sulforaphane (SF) by cruciferous vegetable enzyme myrosinase, or by similar enzymes from specific gut bacteria, both sources having variable efficiency. The effects of exogenous myrosinase on the conversion efficiency of GR to SF was compared to gut microbial myrosinase-like activity. In a randomized, double-blind, crossover study, sixteen subjects received a single oral dose of GR in broccoli seed extract with myrosinase-containing mustard seed powder, or broccoli seed extract alone, both with ascorbic acid. The GR + myrosinase combination, on average, doubled the bioavailability of SF (39.8 ± 3.1%) compared to GR alone (18.6 ± 3.1%).

Evidence strength: This specific application (mustard seed powder as an exogenous myrosinase source) is supported by a small but well-designed RCT (n = 16). Findings require replication in larger trials.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Mustard

• Gastrointestinal system: Ayurvedic texts describe mustard seed preparations for internal diseases such as enlargement of the liver and the spleen, and as a laxative.
• Musculoskeletal system: Mustards are used today in mustard plasters to treat rheumatism, arthritis, aching back, and sore muscles.
• Respiratory system: Traditional Chinese folk remedies used mustard for centuries for the treatment of cough and asthma, and chest pain.
• Oral health: Preliminary clinical evidence supports the use of mustard-derived compounds in oral care.
• Cardiovascular system: Various cultures used mustard to treat cardiovascular illnesses, and over the past four millennia, herbalists and doctors have recognized its importance in medicine.
• Integumentary/skin system: The seeds were applied externally for relieving inflammation and skin diseases.
• Immune and inflammatory pathways: For phytotherapy, mustard can be recognized as a raw material with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and potentially anticancer properties.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No standardized or regulatory-approved therapeutic dosage exists for mustard as a dietary supplement or medicinal agent. The following ranges reflect those reported in traditional and research literature only:

• Whole or powdered seeds (oral, traditional Ayurvedic use): The powder of the seeds is used in 1 to 3 grams per dose; use in higher quantities may cause dehydration, burning sensation, or pitta-aggravating symptoms.
• Seed plasters (topical): To make a mustard plaster, equal parts flour and powdered mustard are spread as a paste on cloth and applied to the affected area for a maximum of 15 minutes.
• Mustard seed powder as myrosinase source (clinical study): In a randomized clinical crossover study (n = 16), a single oral dose of glucoraphanin-rich broccoli seed extract was co-administered with myrosinase-containing mustard seed powder. The specific dose of mustard seed powder was not cited in the available abstract; the primary measured outcome was sulforaphane bioavailability from the glucoraphanin source.
• Yellow mustard seed extract (animal study): In a rodent study, mustard seed extracts were co-administered orally at doses of 550, 175, and 55 mg/kg body weight. These are preclinical dosages and cannot be directly extrapolated to humans.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Erucic Acid and Cardiac Risk

The heart is the principal target organ for toxic effects after erucic acid exposure; myocardial lipidosis was identified as the critical effect for chronic exposure to erucic acid. The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) noted that erucic acid-induced myocardial lipidosis observed in several animal species may also be relevant in humans, especially given that myocardial lipidosis is associated with cardiac insufficiency. Therefore, oils with high erucic acid content are considered undesirable for human consumption. So far, no reliable information is available regarding the development of myocardial lipidosis after high intake of erucic acid in humans, and epidemiological studies show no clear association between cardiac disease in humans and a diet high in erucic acid.

Erucic acid is not a safety concern for most consumers, as average exposure is less than half the safe level. Safety concerns are mitigated especially when erucic acid remains below the 2% EFSA threshold, as in low-erucic cultivars such as "Bamberka" (less than 0.5% erucic acid).

8.2 Skin Irritation and Burns from Topical Use

Mustard plasters should be applied to the affected area for a maximum of 15 minutes, as prolonged application can result in burns to the skin and nerve damage. Skin lesions can occur within hours after exposure, and there is no significant therapy procedure once they occur. Bakers and restaurant workers have developed finger and hand rashes after handling mustard and radishes (which are part of the mustard family), and testing confirmed the presence of an allergic reaction to the isothiocyanates in the food.

8.3 IgE-Mediated Allergy and Anaphylaxis

Children with pollen allergies, especially to birch and mugwort, are more likely to develop cross-reactive hypersensitivity to spices like celery, parsley, coriander, and mustard. In a study conducted on 49 patients mono-sensitized to lipid-transfer proteins (LTP) in Italy, 4% were found to be sensitive to mustard. Mustard is also widely used in India; however, limited data is available regarding its allergy prevalence in that population. Although the prevalence of mustard allergy in Canada is less known, its severity is reported to be high, with reports of serious reactions like anaphylaxis after consuming a small quantity of mustard.

Mustard-allergic patients also showed IgE reactivity to nuts (97.4%), legumes (94.7%), and Rosaceae fruits (89.5%), indicating extensive cross-reactivity in this allergic population.

EFSA data indicate that the minimal observed eliciting dose (MOED) for mustard protein triggering allergic reactions is 0.26 mg mustard protein. It is predicted that between 0.1% and 1% of the mustard-allergic population would react with mild objective symptoms to a low-level dose.

8.4 Regulatory Status of Mustard Oil

Pressing the seeds of the mustard plant yields an oil popularly used in cooking in countries including China, India, and Russia. However, mustard oil is banned for edible consumption in the European Union, United States, and Canada because of its erucic acid content.

8.5 Mustard as a Regulated Allergen

Other potentially undesirable or toxic compounds — such as bisphenol F, erucic acid, and allergens — may occur in the seeds and in mustard products intended for human consumption. Mustard is recognized as a major food allergen in European Union food labelling legislation and must be declared on pre-packaged foods. The European Commission requested EFSA to consider comments related to the maximum amount of mustard protein that could be consumed from emulsifiers manufactured from behenic acid and the minimal observed eliciting dose triggering allergic reactions in mustard-allergic individuals.

8.6 Thyroid / Goitrogenic Effects

Glucosinolate hydrolysis products including goitrin (an oxazolidinethione) can interfere with thyroid function. Glucosinolates such as gluconasturtiin, sinigrin, and glucobrassicin are hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase to produce an aglycone which undergoes spontaneous non-enzymatic rearrangement to produce organic isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, nitriles, epithionitriles, oxazolidinethiones, and organic cyanates. Thiocyanates in particular are recognized potential goitrogens at high dietary intake levels; this concern is primarily relevant to populations with pre-existing iodine deficiency.

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