Mangosteen

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is an evergreen tropical tree belonging to the Clusiaceae family that grows in Southeast Asia, and is cultivated mainly as a source of its highly palatable fruit, consisting of a fragrant white internal pulp divided in septa, contained in a dark purple rind. The plant is also referred to under the older family designation Guttiferae in some taxonomic systems. The genus Garcinia belongs to the Clusiaceae family, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) is a tropical fruit native to the Malay Archipelago, the Sunda Islands, and the Moluccas.

Morphology

The mangosteen tree is mainly cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Mature mangosteen trees range from 6 to 25 m. Production of the fruit generally requires 10 or more years with a yield of around 400 fruits per tree that is increased in older trees. The fruit is round or oblate, 4–7 cm in diameter, boasting a thick, purplish rind and a segmented, sweet-white aril inside.

Common Names and Cultural Epithets

Mangosteen is one of the most popular tropical fruits, commonly called the "Queen of Fruits." In Southeast Asia, mangosteen is commonly known as the "Queen of Fruits," and is frequently paired with durian, the "King of Fruits." In Chinese food therapy, mangosteen is considered "cooling," making it a good counterbalance to the "heaty" durian.

Common Dosage Forms and Preparations

The seeds and pericarps of the fruit have a long history of use in the traditional medicinal practices of the region, and beverages containing mangosteen pulp and pericarps are sold worldwide as nutritional supplements. Commercial preparations available today include whole fruit juice blends, pericarp (rind) extracts in capsule or tablet form, standardized powdered extracts, and topical formulations. More recently, mangosteen juice and pericarp extracts have been marketed as health tonics and dietary supplements.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

Southeast Asian Traditions

The pericarp of mangosteen fruit has been used in traditional medicine in Southeast Asia for centuries to treat infection, wounds, inflammation, and diarrhea. Mangosteen bark, leaf, root, and rind have been used in traditional Southeast Asian medicine for centuries — particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines — as remedies for diarrhea, dysentery, fever, gonorrhea, menstrual irregularities, urinary tract infections, eczema, itching, skin infections, and wound healing. The bark has been applied topically for infected wounds and ulcers.

The fruit's white aril is commonly consumed fresh, whereas the bitter pericarp is applied in traditional Southeast Asian remedies for ailments ranging from gastrointestinal issues, like abdominal pain and diarrhea, to skin conditions, such as infected wounds and chronic ulcers. In folk medicine, mangosteen pericarp has been used to treat fever, convulsions, diarrhea, dysentery, stomach discomfort, trauma, pain, infected wounds, suppuration, and chronic ulcers.

Early Documented References

Early reports of the traditional uses of infusions and decoctions of its peels and seeds to treat gastrointestinal and urinary tract infections, and as anti-scorbutic, laxative and anti-fever agent, date from almost two hundred years ago (Descourtilz et al., 1821; Lilly and Colman, 1833; Pardo de Tavera and Thomas, 1901). The fruit is first mentioned in written history in the Yingya Shenglan, a Chinese record from the 15th century, which describes it as a native Southeast Asian plant with white flesh and delicious sweet and sour flavor. Mangosteen was also featured in Linnaeus' Species Plantarum of 1753.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Mangosteen has been used in traditional medicine as a cooling, balancing remedy for when there is too much heat in the body. Traditional Chinese Medicine considers it to have potent cooling properties.

Other Regional Uses

In the Caribbean, mangosteen tea is used as a tonic for fatigue and low energy. Brazilians use a similar tea as a deworming agent and digestive aid. In Venezuela, parasitic skin infections are treated with poultices of the fruit rind, while Filipinos employ a fruit extract to control fever.

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3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Xanthones: The Principal Bioactive Class

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is a tropical tree native to Southeast Asia that produces a fruit whose pericarp contains a family of tricyclic isoprenylated polyphenols referred to as xanthones. Numerous in vitro studies have shown that these xanthones possess anti-oxidant, anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic activities.

Secondary metabolites known as xanthones have been isolated from the pericarp of mangosteen and are attributed to the medicinal properties of the fruit. Xanthones have a unique chemical structure composed of a tricyclic aromatic system (C6–C3–C6). Isoprene, methoxyl and hydroxyl groups located at various locations on the A and B rings result in a diverse array of xanthone compounds. At least 68 distinct xanthones have been identified in different parts of the G. mangostana plant, with 50 being present in the fruit's pericarp at higher concentrations than in the aril or edible portion of the fruit.

Principal Xanthone Compounds

Alpha-mangostin (α-MG) and gamma-mangostin (γ-MG) are the most common xanthones in mangosteen fruits, although there are also beta-mangostin (β-MG), gartanin, and other xanthones. According to previous research, most of the biological activities of G. mangostana are linked to the quantity of α-MG. Other xanthone metabolites identified include garcinones A, B, C, D and E, mangostinone, 9-hydroxycalabaxanthone, and isomangostin.

HPLC analysis has shown that α-mangostin constitutes about 30% w/w of crude ethanol extract of mangosteen pericarp. α-Mangostin has the molecular formula C₂₄H₂₆O₆ (PubChem CID: 5281650; CAS number: 6147-11-1).

Other Phytochemical Constituents

Mangosteen also contains phenolic acids, xanthones, prenylated benzophenone derivatives, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and condensed tannins. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that the pericarp of the mangosteen is a rich source of oligomeric proanthocyanidins with B-type linkages. Various components have been found to be responsible for the pharmacological properties of mangosteen, such as saccharides, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and, most importantly, xanthones.

Established Mechanisms of Action

The major secondary metabolites of mangosteen, the xanthones, exhibit a variety of biological activities including antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, cytotoxic, and potential cancer chemopreventive activities. Some of the xanthones from mangosteen have been found to influence specific enzyme activities, such as aromatase, HIV-1 protease, inhibitor κB kinase, quinone reductase, sphingomyelinase, topoisomerase, and several protein kinases, and they also modulate histamine H1 and 5-hydroxytryptamine2A receptor binding.

They have been shown to inhibit several molecular targets in cell signaling cascades involving kinases, cyclooxygenases, and caspases. Moreover, they have been proposed as potential chemopreventive agents for their ability to arrest the cell cycle, suppress tumor cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and inhibit adhesion, invasion, and metastasis.

α-Mangostin and other xanthonoids, including β-mangostin and γ-mangostin, exert neuroprotective, anti-proliferative, antinociceptive, antioxidant, pro-apoptotic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic effects through multiple signaling mechanisms, including ERK1/2, MAPK, NF-κB, TGF-β1, and AMPK pathways.

α-Mangostin has been reported to inhibit nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in animal models and to downregulate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways.

The presence of hydroxyl groups, in particular, enhances antioxidant capacity, allowing α-mangostin to scavenge free radicals effectively, thereby exerting cytoprotective effects.

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4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Antioxidant Activity

There is very good evidence that α- and γ-mangostins are potent antioxidants in standard bioassays. In vitro, mangosteen extracts and xanthones from mangosteen were reported to scavenge DPPH, ABTS, and peroxynitrite radicals.

Human/Clinical Evidence: One study investigated the absorption and antioxidant effects of a xanthone-rich mangosteen liquid in healthy human volunteers after the acute consumption of 59 mL of the supplement. The liquid contained mangosteen, aloe vera, green tea, and multivitamins. Results indicated that α-mangostin and vitamins B2 and B5 were bioavailable, with observed Cmax at tmax of around 1 hour, and antioxidant capacity (ORAC assay) was increased with a maximum effect of 18% after 2 hours. This was a single-dose acute study in healthy volunteers, and the multi-ingredient formulation makes it impossible to attribute effects solely to mangosteen.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted using 60 participants, 30 men and 30 women, ages 18–60. Participants were randomly divided into two groups, placebo and mangosteen groups, with the same number of male and female participants in each group. The trial duration was 30 days. ORAC was measured as an antioxidant biomarker. It was found that after the 30-day trial, the group given the mangosteen-based drink formula showed 15% more antioxidant capacity in the bloodstream than did the placebo group. However, in clinical trials, most of the studies used commercialized mangosteen-based products that contain additional antioxidant compounds. Therefore, the results were deemed inconclusive and more clinical studies of mangosteen antioxidant activity in oxidant-related diseases are needed.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity

γ-Mangostin has been shown to inhibit nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated macrophages, with IC50 values of 10.1–12.4 μM, indicating meaningful anti-inflammatory potency at the cellular level. The mechanism involves suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and COX-2 activity.

Alpha- and gamma-mangostin decreased the induction by LPS of inflammatory genes, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and Toll-like receptor-2. Moreover, they attenuated LPS activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-related kinase, and p38.

Human/Clinical Evidence: Clinical trials focusing on the anti-inflammatory effect of mangosteen are limited. The 30-day randomized controlled trial described above also assessed C-reactive protein (CRP) and found meaningful reductions in this inflammatory marker in healthy adults, though again the multi-ingredient product prevents mangosteen-specific attribution. Systematic reviews from 2025 confirm that mangosteen extracts and xanthones consistently lower oxidative stress markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines across in vitro and in vivo models, with NF-κB pathway inhibition identified as a key molecular mechanism.

4.3 Metabolic Effects: Obesity and Insulin Resistance

Animal research conducted on diet-induced obesity (DIO) mice treated with alpha-mangostin reports weight loss, attenuated hepatic steatosis, decreased serum glucose, and improved lipid profile through sirtuin 1-AMP-activated protein kinase and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma pathways.

Human/Clinical Evidence: The objective of a published pilot study was to evaluate safety and efficacy of treatment with mangosteen extract on insulin resistance, weight management, and inflammatory status in obese female patients with insulin resistance. Twenty-two patients were randomized 1:1 to behavioral therapy alone or behavioral therapy and mangosteen, and 20 completed the 26-week study. Pilot studies lasting 4 to 16 weeks conducted on human subjects and assessing the effect of up to 800 mg of mangosteen extracts pointed in the same direction as preclinical studies, with reported significant improvements in inflammatory markers, weight loss, and waist circumference reduction, and an excellent safety and tolerability profile. These findings are preliminary; the studies were small and limited to female participants.

4.4 Anticancer Activity

The pericarp of mangosteen fruit is a rich source of xanthones, which are bioactive compounds known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Xanthones are one of the most studied natural compounds for anticancer activity due to their cytotoxic effect. Mangosteen pericarp xanthones, particularly α-mangostin, exhibit potent antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, and considerable anticancer activity on several cancer cell lines.

In studies of pancreatic cancer cell lines, the chemotherapeutic effect of α-mangostin was determined using four human pancreatic cancer cells (PL-45, PANC1, BxPC3, and ASPC1). α-Mangostin resulted in a significant inhibition of pancreatic cancer cell viability without having any effects on normal human pancreatic duct epithelial cells. α-Mangostin showed a dose-dependent increase of apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells. Also, α-mangostin inhibited the expression levels of pNF-κB/p65Ser552, pStat3Ser727, and pStat3Tyr705. α-Mangostin inhibited DNA binding activity of NF-κB and Stat3.

Treatment with α-mangostin decreased the viability of gastric adenocarcinoma cancer cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The anti-tumor effects of α-mangostin could be partially ascribed to its interference with Stat3 signaling, as well as promoting apoptosis or programmed cell death.

Limitations — No Human Clinical Trials: Despite consistently impressive preclinical findings across anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory research, almost no well-designed clinical trials have confirmed therapeutic benefits for any condition in humans. All cancer-related findings for mangosteen remain at the in vitro and animal model stage. Many compounds that kill cancer cells in test tubes fail completely in clinical trials due to insufficient bioavailability, systemic toxicity, and the complex tumor microenvironment.

4.5 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

Alpha-mangostin is a prenylated xanthone extracted from the pericarp of the mangosteen tree. The compound exhibits a broad range of therapeutic properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antimicrobial activity. Research highlights its potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus and Enterococcus genera. The primary antibacterial mechanism of α-MG consists of the disruption of the bacterial membrane and increased bacterial wall permeability, leading to drug accumulation and cell lysis. Other mechanisms include genomic interference and enzyme activity inhibition, which impair metabolic pathways.

α-MG has been demonstrated to possess multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antitumoral, antiparasitic, antibacterial, and insecticidal effects. In addition, α-MG can also exert antifungal activity. α-MG and its derivatives at 1000 mg·L⁻¹ demonstrated in vitro antifungal activity against three phytopathogenic fungi, including Fusarium oxysporum vasinfectum, Alternaria tenuis, and Dreschlera oryzae.

Regarding antiparasitic activity, α-mangostin from G. mangostana has been reported to have activity against Plasmodium falciparum in preclinical studies. This area of research remains exclusively preclinical.

4.6 Neuroprotective Effects

Anti-inflammatory effects were evident as mangosteen extract reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and modulated the NF-κB and COX-2 pathways in neuroinflammation models. Xanthones further suppressed inflammatory mediators and enhanced cellular resilience. The in vitro and in vivo results suggested the neuroprotective capabilities of mangosteen extracts and its purified bioactives. Despite that, gaps remain in understanding the potential synergistic effects of these bioactives, their druggability properties, and clinical applicability.

In mouse models, after 8-month dietary supplementation, a mangosteen pericarp diet (5000 ppm) significantly attenuated the cognitive impairment associated with anti-inflammation, increased BDNF levels, and decreased p-tau in older mice. The mangosteen pericarp diet was further applied to triple transgenic Alzheimer's disease (3×Tg-AD) mice from 5 to 13 months, and it exerted neuroprotective, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory effects and reduced Aβ deposition and p-tau levels in the hippocampus.

No human clinical trials on mangosteen for neurodegenerative disease had been completed at the time of this review. The evidence base is entirely preclinical.

4.7 Cardioprotective Effects

In animal models, α-mangostin was able to attenuate lipid peroxidation and damage to the antioxidant-defense system during injury-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Mangosteen showed a positive effect in alleviating disease-related parameters in cardiovascular models in in vivo studies. Again, no human cardiovascular trials have been reported.

4.8 Skin and Wound Healing

The traditional use of the mangosteen pericarp in treating infected wounds and ulcers implies a role in modulating local immune responses and inflammatory processes, thereby suggesting its potential anti-inflammatory properties. Research on the xanthone mangostanin demonstrated its capacity for protecting and restoring oxidative damage in human keratinocyte cell lines in vitro. All wound-healing and skin evidence remains in vitro or from traditional use reports; no completed randomized controlled trials in humans on this indication were identified.

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5. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the published literature, mangosteen and its xanthones have been studied in relation to the following body systems:

• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use for diarrhea, dysentery, and abdominal pain; modern research on gut inflammation.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8), NF-κB pathway suppression, and COX-2 inhibition documented in vitro and in animal models.
• Metabolic and endocrine system: Insulin sensitization and blood glucose modulation in obesity and type 2 diabetes models; pilot human data available.
• Oncology: Anticancer activity across multiple cell lines (pancreatic, gastric, breast, colon, leukemia) in vitro; no clinical evidence.
• Nervous system: Neuroprotection against oxidative stress and amyloid-β toxicity in animal models; no clinical evidence.
• Cardiovascular system: Cardioprotection in animal infarction models; no clinical evidence.
• Integumentary system: Traditional and preclinical evidence for wound healing, skin infection, and eczema; no clinical evidence.
• Microbiology: In vitro activity against Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and parasites including Plasmodium falciparum.

Evidence from in vitro, in vivo and emerging clinical studies is integrated to outline the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and cardio-hepatoprotective activities of mangosteen-derived compounds.

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6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Mangosteen is available in multiple commercial forms. Dosages reported in the scientific literature vary considerably by preparation and indication:

• Mangosteen juice/beverage (acute study): A study investigating the absorption and antioxidant effects of a xanthone-rich mangosteen liquid used acute consumption of 59 mL of the supplement.
• Mangosteen-based drink (clinical trial): A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted using 60 participants over a 30-day trial duration, with participants divided into placebo and mangosteen groups. The specific volume consumed daily was not extractable from the available text.
• Mangosteen extract (pilot obesity RCT): Pilot studies lasting 4 to 16 weeks conducted on human subjects assessing the effect of up to 800 mg of mangosteen extracts reported improvements in inflammatory markers and metabolic parameters.
• Pericarp extract (patent-reported doses, adult basis): A daily dosage of mangosteen extract of approximately 60 to 90 mg, and a daily dosage of alpha-mangostin of approximately 7.5 to 9.0 mg, and that of gamma-mangostin 0.9 to 1.2 mg, administered once to several times daily.
• Xanthone content of pericarp extract: Optimal extraction from the rind yields approximately 10–15% total xanthones by weight using solvent extraction with ethanol or acetone.

No evidence-based guidance exists for optimal timing. General principles for polyphenol supplements suggest taking with food may improve tolerance and potentially improve absorption of lipophilic compounds, and splitting the daily dose into two servings may provide more consistent plasma levels — though these recommendations are extrapolated from general polyphenol research.

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7. Bioavailability Considerations

Like many polyphenolic compounds, xanthones from mangosteen have limited oral bioavailability due to poor aqueous solubility, extensive first-pass metabolism, and rapid phase II conjugation (glucuronidation and sulfation) in the liver and intestine. These compounds are heat-sensitive, with degradation observed starting at approximately 60°C, particularly during drying or processing, leading to measurable losses in α-mangostin content.

Low oral bioavailability and poor water solubility limit the therapeutic usage of mangosteen xanthones. Because of their poor water solubility, α-MG preparations typically require a high concentration of a solubilizer, limiting their use in certain clinical applications. A new, local, α-MG-containing nano-emulsion with an optimal oil phase and surfactant content has been developed as a proposed solution to this challenge.

The pharmacokinetics of alpha-mangostin, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, are still areas of ongoing research. Efforts to enhance its solubility and bioavailability have been explored through various formulation approaches.

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8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Toxicity Profile

Alpha-mangostin has demonstrated a favourable safety profile in preclinical studies, showing limited acute and subchronic toxicity. However, further studies are required to comprehensively evaluate its chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, and potential adverse effects.

Toxicological studies have evaluated the genotoxicity and mutagenicity of alpha-mangostin. In general, it has shown no genotoxic potential in bacterial mutagenicity assays and in vitro micronucleus tests. Nevertheless, additional genotoxicity studies are necessary to fully assess its safety profile.

The data related to the toxicity of pure α-mangostin is still very limited because most of the studies conducted use mangosteen extract which contains only a small amount of α-mangostin. The concentration of the tested compound influences the toxicity values (LD50 and NOAEL). The higher the purity of the test compound, the smaller the LD50 and NOAEL values, indicating that the compound is more toxic at higher concentrations.

Xanthones from mangosteen pericarp have been proven to be nontoxic to mice when administered orally at a dose of 100 mg/kg of body weight/day for 7 days.

Gastrointestinal Effects

Mangosteen is generally well tolerated in food amounts, but concentrated forms and supplements carry possible side effects, interactions, and risks. Gastrointestinal upset — nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating — is the most common reported effect with high intake or concentrated extracts. Notably, alpha-mangostin exacerbated symptoms of experimental colitis in a mouse model. The clinical relevance of this finding is not established.

Drug Interactions

Potential mangosteen component–drug interactions and adverse reactions should be considered before consumption of beverages containing mangosteen pulp and pericarps as complementary therapy, mainly regarding the potential of mangosteen juices to inhibit hepatic CYP-450 enzyme activities, thus interfering with drug metabolism.

• Anticoagulants: Theoretically, concomitant use of mangosteen with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs may increase the risk of bleeding.
• Antihistamines: Individuals taking antihistamines may note an additive effect with mangosteen. This is because in vitro and animal research shows that gamma-mangostin, a constituent of mangosteen, is a potent and competitive antagonist of the serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor and has histamine H1 receptor antagonist properties.
• Chemotherapeutic drugs: Mangosteen products have antioxidant activity and may interact with chemotherapeutic drugs such as anthracyclines, platinum compounds, and alkylating agents.
• CYP-450 substrate drugs: Mangosteen may increase the risk of side effects of drugs that are CYP-450 substrates. Clinical relevance is not established.
• Calcineurin inhibitors: Compounds isolated from mangosteen may have additive immunosuppressant effects if used with calcineurin inhibitors such as cyclosporine or tacrolimus. Clinical relevance is not established.
• Diabetes medications: Mangosteen juice provides approximately 140–170 calories per cup, with the vast majority from sugar. This should be factored into dietary planning, particularly for individuals with diabetes, prediabetes, or those monitoring caloric intake.

Allergic Reactions

Allergic reactions, including itching, rash, hives, or more rarely respiratory symptoms, may occur in people with sensitivity to mangosteen or related fruits.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Limited safety data exist in pregnancy and breastfeeding. High-dose supplements during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided; dietary amounts of the fruit are likely low risk.

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9. Overall Evidence Assessment

Mangosteen, and particularly its principal xanthone α-mangostin, represents one of the most chemically rich and pharmacologically studied tropical botanical ingredients. The main phytochemicals present in the species are isoprenylated xanthones, a class of secondary metabolites with multiple reports of biological effects, such as antioxidant, pro-apoptotic, anti-proliferative, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, hypoglycemic, and anti-obesity. The diversity of actions displayed by mangosteen xanthones shows that these compounds target multiple signaling pathways involved in different pathologies, and place them as valuable sources for developing new drugs to treat chronic and degenerative diseases.

Despite these findings, the evidence base for therapeutic use in humans remains very limited. While traditionally used in Southeast Asian folk medicine for diarrhea, skin infections, and wound healing, human clinical evidence for mangosteen supplements remains extremely limited. Over 50 distinct xanthone structures have been identified in the mangosteen pericarp, with alpha-mangostin and gamma-mangostin being the most studied. Despite consistently impressive preclinical findings across anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory research, almost no well-designed clinical trials have confirmed therapeutic benefits for any condition in humans.

The most robustly documented human evidence pertains to short-term antioxidant effects and preliminary insulin sensitization in obese subjects. Anticancer, neuroprotective, and antimicrobial applications remain entirely preclinical. Bioavailability limitations impose a recognized gap between in vitro potency and potential in vivo efficacy that future research must address.

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