IngredientsLentein is a trademarked plant-protein ingredient derived from water lentils β aquatic plants belonging to the family Lemnaceae (also classified as the subfamily Lemnoideae of Araceae). The EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) describes water lentils as aquatic plants belonging to the Araceae family, represented by five genera: Lemna, Wolffia, Wolffiella, Landoltia, and Spirodela. Within this family, the duckweed family Lemnaceae belongs to the monocot order Alismatales and consists of 36 recognized species representing these five genera.
The aquatic Lemnaceae family, commonly called duckweed, comprises some of the smallest and fastest-growing angiosperms known on Earth. Their tiny size, rapid growth by clonal propagation, and facile uptake of labeled compounds from the media were attractive features that made them a well-known model for plant biology from 1950 to 1990.
Some duckweeds are commonly referred to as water lentil (Lemna spp.) or water meal (Wolffia spp.). The individual plant can range in size from 1.5 cm (Spirodela polyrhiza) to less than 1 mm (Wolffia angusta), and is composed of a leafβstem structure called a frond, with some genera having roots, such as Spirodela, Landoltia, and Lemna.
The commercial ingredient specifically branded as Lentein is produced primarily from species in the Lemna genus (most commonly Lemna minor and Lemna gibba), sometimes in combination with Wolffia species. The commercial novel food evaluated by EFSA consists of thermally washed and dried water lentils produced as a polyculture crop of species from the Lemna genus (70β100%) and the Wolffia genus (0β30%), with its main constituents being protein, fibre, and fat.
Parabel USA (now operating under the name Lemnature USA) received a "no objections" letter from the FDA affirming the GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status of LENTEIN, a protein-packed ingredient from water lentils β free-floating, seed-producing, micro aquatic plants also known as duckweed and Lemna/Lemnaceae.
In 2017, LENTEIN Complete and Degreened LENTEIN Complete from the Parabel company, which are made from duckweed protein, were deemed GRAS when used as nutrients in commercial food products, up to a maximum of 24 g per serving.
LENTEIN, the plant protein ingredient, is a green powder with 40β45% protein and 35β45% dietary fiber. With its mild and pleasant sweet taste it is easily incorporated into beverages, snacks, and other foods. The product is labeled on ingredient declarations as "LENTEIN Complete (whole Lemnaceae protein powder)."
Key commercial forms include:
Parabel's products are Non-GMO Project Verified and are certified Kosher and Halal. The production process has been optimized for maximum yield, consistent year-round harvest, and 98% of the water used to produce Lentein is recycled.
Human consumption of duckweed is common in some parts of Southeast Asia, including Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar, as a vegetable named Khai-Nam. Evidence shows it is mostly consumed as Khai-pum or Khai-nam β meaning "eggs of water" β in Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar, where daily staples are majorly starch-dense foods such as rice and noodles.
Native to tropical and subtropical Asia, duckweeds are found worldwide. For centuries, they have been harvested from waterways and used in the cuisines of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia. Wild duckweed has been consumed in Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos for centuries, where it is grown, harvested, and used in soups and curries.
Wolffia species have a long history of consumption in Southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. The main species commonly consumed are Wolffia arrhiza and Wolffia globosa. In Asia, especially in Southeast Asian regions, duckweed has been officially consumed for over 25 years.
Plants from the Lemnoideae subfamily, especially Lemna minor and Wolffia globosa, have been used for years in traditional Asian medicine, homeopathy, and as additives to foods. In ancient China and medieval Europe, the plant was used for medicinal purposes.
Many people also eat the fibre-rich duckweed to treat respiratory infections, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout β although that is based more on anecdotal than scientific evidence.
Interest in duckweed has steadily regained momentum over the past decade, driven in part by the growing need to identify alternative plants from traditional agricultural crops that can help tackle urgent societal challenges, such as climate change and rapid population expansion. The aquatic plant family Lemnaceae, commonly called duckweed or water lentil, has attracted increasing interest in the scientific literature over the past two decades. It holds extraordinary potential as a new crop due to its multiple applications: as an alternative protein source for feed and food production, as a starch producer for renewable biofuel, and for its capacity to provide valuable ecosystem services.
Lemna minor can multiply rapidly on the surface of stagnant water, giving a smooth green appearance to the water body, and can adapt to a broad spectrum of environmental conditions. The plant, having a short life cycle, can produce several generations in a short period if favorable environmental conditions are achieved. It can thrive and replicate maximally in water with temperatures of 6β33 Β°C and can tolerate low temperatures and hoar frost.
The dry biomass yield of L. minor ranges between 10 and 30 tons per hectare annually with an adequate profile of dietary proteins and essential amino acids. The high-yielding water lentil doubles its biomass in 24β36 hours and can be harvested every day.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved water lentils (Lemna) as a sustainable high-protein vegetable for human consumption after nearly 10 years of Wageningen University & Research (WUR) studies proving its safety, nutritional value, and low manganese levels comparable to spinach. This tiny aquatic plant produces over six times more protein per hectare than soy, requires no farmland or pesticides, and offers vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and a complete amino acid profile with a mild nutty flavor suitable for soups, pesto, and ravioli.
The macronutrient profile of Lentein depends on species, growing conditions, and degree of processing. Across multiple duckweed species, protein content spans from 20% to 35%, fat from 4% to 7%, and starch from 4% to 10% per dry weight. The amino acid distributions are close to WHO recommendations, having, for example, 4.8% lysine (Lys), 2.7% methionine + cysteine (Met + Cys), and 7.7% phenylalanine + tyrosine (Phe + Tyr).
Under optimized commercial hydroponic conditions, concentrations are higher. The commercial LENTEIN ingredient is a green powder with 40β45% protein and 35β45% dietary fiber. In water lentil protein concentrate, the protein content is approximately 64%, with fibre, fat, and ash accounting for 11%, 8%, and 6% of composition, respectively.
Under optimized growth conditions, duckweed contains a high protein content of up to 45% with high-quality and easily digestible amino acids close to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO), which is an important nutritional index.
Lentein is derived from water lentils, or duckweed (Lemnaceae), and has a Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of 0.93. The company claims that its levels of essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids are comparable to that of whey and are higher than other kinds of plant proteins, including soy. It should be noted that this PDCAAS figure is provided by the manufacturer and has not been independently replicated in peer-reviewed literature to the same degree as scores for established proteins.
In mass-production studies on Lemna minor, the duckweed was found to be a rich source of essential (39.20%), non-essential (53.64%), and non-proteinogenic (7.13%) amino acids. Among essential amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, and valine constituted 48.67%. Glutamic acid was 25.87% of total non-essential amino acids.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) represent between 48% and 71% of the total fatty acids in duckweeds, with omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, around 37.1 to 42.8%) and omega-6 linoleic acid (LA, 16.1 to 25.0%) being the most prevalent. Three fatty acids β palmitic acid (16:0), linoleic acid (18:2Ξ9,12), and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3Ξ9,12,15) β comprise more than 80% of total duckweed fatty acids. This fatty acid composition results in a favorable omega-6 to omega-3 ratio. The content of polyunsaturated fatty acids was between 48% and 71%, and the high content of n-3 fatty acids resulted in a favorable n-6/n-3 ratio of 0.5 or less.
The high fiber content (approximately 25% of dry weight) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (more than 60% of total fat) are shown to be a unique nutrient composition of duckweed. This fiber is present in both soluble and insoluble forms, contributing to the functional properties of Lentein powders in food applications.
Lemna is rich in all essential and many non-essential amino acids, as well as iron, zinc, and vitamin B12 β nutrients that are not always as easy to find in plant-based sources. These can be found in higher concentrations than most vegetables.
As a constituent of a plant-based diet, water lentils have the potential to close gaps in the supply of vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids.
Laboratory assays (DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, TPC, and TFC determinations) confirmed the strong antioxidant activity of Wolffia globosa, Wolffia arrhiza, and Lemna minor, which is attributed to their high content of phenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids.
Antioxidant capacities of Lemna minor were notably studied across multiple investigations. A strong correlation was observed between flavones, flavonols, and total carotenoids with the radical scavenging activities, as demonstrated mainly through DPPH, ABTS, and other assays.
Additional phytochemicals include lutein, chlorophyll, phytosterols, and tocopherols. The phytosterol content in Wolffia microscopica, the fastest-growing angiosperm, was 50 mg per gram of lipid. Lentein also contains omega-3 fatty acids, lutein, and dietary fiber.
Anti-nutritive compounds such as phytate, oxalate, or nitrate do not have a substantial impact on the nutritional benefits of water lentils. However, some data indicate the presence of tannins and oxalic acids. Duckweed has been found to contain high levels of tannins (9.83 mg/g) and oxalic acids (70β110 mg/100 g on a wet weight basis).
The primary mechanism by which Lentein exerts nutritional effects is through delivery of a complete essential amino acid profile. Duckweed protein has a better array of essential amino acids (EAA) than most vegetable proteins and more closely resembles animal protein. The branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) β leucine, isoleucine, and valine β are of particular physiological interest because of their role in stimulating muscle protein synthesis via the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, a well-established mechanism in protein nutrition science.
Protein hydrolysates of duckweed exhibited strong inhibitory activity against the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), highlighting their antihypertensive potential, as well as activity against other metabolic enzymes, suggesting a broad spectrum of bioactive effects.
The chymotryptic final hydrolysate, the chymotryptic supernatant, and the papain supernatant increased ACE inhibitory activity by more than 6- to 8-fold, resulting in IC50 values ranging between 0.55 to 0.70 mg peptides/mL. Depending on the fraction, the ACE inhibition was attributed to either bioactive peptides, phenolic compounds, or a synergistic effect of both. This was, to the knowledge of the study authors, the first investigation of enzymatic hydrolysis of duckweed proteins to produce bioactive peptides with therapeutic applications.
Following duckweed hydrolysis with pepsin, chymotrypsin, trypsin, and papain, interesting IC50 values for dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP)-IV and ACE inhibition were obtained for supernatant fractions, especially with pepsin (IC50 = 0.7 and 0.07 mg/mL, respectively). Using PLS-DA combined with QSAR models, five new DPP-IV inhibitors (most active: API, IC50 = 126.88 ΞΌM), eleven new ACE inhibitors (most active: FAR, IC50 = 13.54 ΞΌM), and four new antioxidants were identified. DPP-IV inhibition is the same mechanism exploited by the gliptin class of antidiabetic pharmaceutical drugs (e.g., sitagliptin), and acts to prolong the action of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), thereby reducing postprandial blood glucose.
In recent studies, it has been demonstrated that duckweed protein hydrolysates are a promising source of bioactive peptides with antihypertensive (ACE-inhibitory), antidiabetic (DPP-IV inhibitory), and antioxidant activities, identified and validated both experimentally and through machine-learning-assisted analyses. Antioxidant effects are attributed to the combined action of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids (including lutein and beta-carotene), tocopherols (vitamin E), and antioxidant peptides released during digestion.
Simulated digestion of Wolffia globosa confirmed its prebiotic properties. The relatively high dietary fiber content of Lentein, including both soluble and insoluble fractions, may contribute to modulation of the gut microbiota, though this mechanism has not been formally characterized in human clinical trials.
Human/Clinical Evidence (Preliminary)
A high protein content combined with enormous growth capacity makes duckweed an interesting alternative protein source, but information about postprandial responses in humans was lacking. A key study aimed to assess the postprandial serum amino acid profile of Lemna minor in healthy adults in comparison with green peas, with a secondary objective of obtaining insights regarding human safety.
A total of twelve healthy volunteers participated in a randomised, cross-over trial. Subjects received two protein sources in randomised order with a 1-week washout period. After an overnight fast, subjects consumed L. minor or peas (equivalent to 20 g of protein). Blood samples were taken at 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min after consumption to assess amino acid, glucose, and insulin levels. Heart rate, blood pressure, and aural temperature were measured before and after consumption, and subjects reported on gastrointestinal discomfort for four subsequent days.
Evidence strength: This was a small (n=12), single-center, randomized crossover trial. While it provides human safety data and some pharmacokinetic insights on amino acid absorption, the very small sample size severely limits conclusions about efficacy or superiority to other proteins. Larger controlled trials are required.
In Vitro and Preliminary Human Evidence
Duckweed protein hydrolysates have been validated as promising sources of bioactive peptides with antidiabetic (DPP-IV inhibitory) activities, identified both experimentally and through machine-learning-assisted analyses. This work is primarily in vitro; it demonstrates mechanistic plausibility but does not constitute clinical evidence of glycemic benefit in humans.
Research on a related duckweed strain (Wolffia globosa / Mankai) has examined postprandial glycemic responses in humans, demonstrating favorable glucose and insulin responses compared to control meals. However, this research pertains specifically to Wolffia globosa preparations, not to Lentein/Lemna-derived products directly. Several clinical investigations have shown that consumption of duckweeds can improve several health indicators.
Evidence strength: Mechanistic evidence (in vitro DPP-IV inhibition, ACE inhibition) is documented in the peer-reviewed literature. Human clinical evidence specifically for Lentein (Lemna-derived) products on glycemic control is limited and not yet replicated in large RCTs.
In Vitro Evidence Only
Recent studies have suggested that water lentil proteins may serve as a valuable source of bioactive peptides, which could offer health benefits such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. However, these studies have focused on generating bioactive peptides from hydrolyzed protein extracts for nutraceutical uses rather than investigating whether such peptides naturally arise during in vitro human digestion.
The existing work has not assessed the intestinal absorption or systemic bioavailability of the identified peptides. As demonstrated with other protein sources, only a limited subset of peptides exhibiting in vitro ACE-inhibitory activity possess the structural features required to cross the intestinal barrier, achieve sufficient bioavailability, and remain detectable in peripheral blood. Future studies should evaluate the intestinal permeability and bioavailability of water lentil peptides, as well as their in vivo antihypertensive effects, to better establish the physiological relevance of ACE inhibition.
Evidence strength: Antihypertensive potential is supported only by in vitro enzyme inhibition assays. No human clinical trials confirming blood pressure reduction from Lentein consumption have been published in the peer-reviewed literature. Evidence is preliminary and mechanistic only.
In Vitro Evidence
Studies on different duckweed species highlight their antioxidant capacity, focusing on phenolic compounds from fresh, non-hydrolyzed samples. Antioxidant capacity of Lemna minor was notably studied across multiple investigations. Standard laboratory assays (DPPH, FRAP, ABTS) have consistently demonstrated antioxidant activity attributable to phenolics, flavonoids, and carotenoids.
Evidence strength: Antioxidant activity is robustly documented in vitro. Whether this translates to meaningful clinical antioxidant effects in vivo in humans has not been established in controlled trials.
Preliminary, Largely Preclinical
Extracts of Lemna minor demonstrated antibacterial activity against numerous Gram-positive and -negative bacterial strains as well as yeasts, while simulated digestion of Wolffia globosa confirmed its prebiotic properties.
Evidence strength: Prebiotic potential is supported by simulated digestion studies (in vitro) and general fiber content data. Human clinical evidence for gut microbiota modulation from Lentein consumption is absent in the peer-reviewed literature.
Theoretical/Indirect Evidence
The protein in LENTEIN is stated by the manufacturer to contain levels of essential amino acids and BCAAs comparable to whey, higher than other plant proteins including soy, and has a PDCAAS of 0.93. The theoretical basis for Lentein's utility in supporting muscle protein synthesis rests on its complete EAA and BCAA profile, particularly its leucine content. Lentein contains over 5 g/100 g of leucine, phenylalanine + tyrosine, lysine, and valine.
Evidence strength: No peer-reviewed RCT has directly measured muscle protein synthesis rates, lean mass accrual, or athletic performance outcomes from Lentein supplementation in humans. Inferences are drawn from amino acid profile data and general protein nutrition science.
Animal and Preliminary Evidence
In animal feeding experiments, supplementation of fish diets with Lemna minor increased the content of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (LC-PUFA), demonstrating the potential of this plant as a dietary component enriching the lipid profile.
Evidence strength: Effects on human serum lipid profiles from Lentein consumption have not been established in peer-reviewed clinical trials. The favorable fatty acid profile (high ALA, favorable n-6/n-3 ratio) provides a theoretical basis for lipid benefits.
LENTEIN Complete and Degreened LENTEIN Complete were deemed GRAS when used as nutrients in commercial food products up to a maximum of 24 g per serving.
In the only published human intervention study with Lemna minor, subjects consumed L. minor or peas equivalent to 20 g of protein β representing a single acute dose. The exact mass of Lentein powder corresponding to 20 g of protein varies by product (e.g., for a 45% protein powder, approximately 44 g of powder would be needed).
The novel food is proposed to be used as an ingredient in a variety of food products and as a food supplement. The target population is the general population when used as a food ingredient and exclusively adults when used as a food supplement.
Industry-reported inclusion levels in food products range from 5% for snacks to 35% for ready-to-mix beverages.
In the 90-day subchronic safety study, there is no report of toxicity in a 90-day subchronic study in humans consuming 1 mg/kg body weight of L. minor.
United States: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has granted GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status to some duckweed products, meaning they are considered safe for consumption as food ingredients. These include products derived from Lemna and Wolffia species. Plant powders derived from multiple Lemnoideae species, including polygenus (Wolffia, Lemna, and Spirodela), were granted GRAS status by the FDA in 2018.
European Union: The EFSA NDA Panel concluded in 2021 that the safety of the novel food water lentil powder could not be established β primarily due to concerns about manganese intake. Subsequently, after further studies, in February 2025, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved water lentils (Lemna) as a sustainable high-protein vegetable for human consumption after nearly 10 years of Wageningen University & Research (WUR) studies proving its safety, nutritional value, and low manganese levels comparable to spinach.
Manganese represents the primary documented safety concern associated with water lentil products. The SCF/NDA 2006 stated that oral exposure to manganese beyond the level normally present in food and beverages could represent a risk of adverse health effects without evidence of any health benefit. Consumption of the novel food at the 95th percentile was estimated to increase the highest mean dietary manganese intake by 12β25% across age groups and by 42% when used as a supplement in adults.
The EFSA NDA Panel concluded that the increase in manganese intake from the NF was substantial as compared to the background manganese dietary intake, and consequently, the safety of the NF could not be established β in the context of the 2021 opinion for whole plant powder. This concern was subsequently addressed through reformulation and further evidence generation, leading to the 2025 EFSA approval for preparations in which manganese levels were demonstrated to be comparable to spinach.
Accumulation of toxins from cyanobacteria in water lentils may represent a risk to human health. In particular, microcystins have been reported to accumulate in Lemna and Wolffia species. The potential presence of these toxins in the novel food as a result of the hydroponic nature of the cultivation was assessed based on the concentrations of microcystins/nodularins, anatoxin-a, and saxitoxins in the final product. Commercially produced Lentein grown under controlled hydroponic conditions undergoes testing for cyanotoxin contamination.
The concentration of trace elements and contaminants in the novel food is highly dependent on the conditions of cultivation of the plant and the fertilizer composition. This means that products grown in uncontrolled water sources (e.g., from wild-harvested duckweed) may carry different safety profiles than hydroponically produced commercial products.
EFSA estimated the intake of heavy metals and trace elements, which originate from the fertilizer used for cultivation of water lentils. The Panel considers that exposure to heavy metals and most trace elements from the novel food is not expected to exceed established maximum levels and upper levels for any population group.
Duckweed is known for its remediation capacity, as metals and other pollutants can be absorbed by the plants. However, this is often in low quantities and is foremost caused by growing on contaminated water.
The EFSA Panel raised concerns on potential allergic reactions due to the high protein content of the plant, although no allergic events were reported in the 90-day subchronic human safety study. Commercially, Lentein is stated to be free of the major food allergens, and Lentein Complete has been formulated in chips, crackers, snack mixes, bars, cereal clusters, protein shakes, sports drinks, and meal replacements.
Duckweed that is to be used for human or animal consumption involves a retention period in clean water to ensure that the biomass is free of water-borne pathogens. Commercial Lentein undergoes thermal washing and drying as part of processing.
The health-promoting properties of duckweed have been evaluated in diverse experimental models β ranging from in vitro analyses, through animal experiments, to clinical trials involving humans. However, the human clinical evidence base for Lentein specifically remains in early stages.
Key evidence gaps include:
The overall evidence picture is that Lentein possesses a well-characterized and nutritionally favorable compositional profile, with mechanistic data from in vitro and animal studies suggesting multiple areas of bioactivity. Human clinical evidence, however, remains sparse, predominantly consisting of a single small crossover trial using 20 g protein doses, plus regulatory safety assessments. All purported health claims beyond nutrient delivery require larger, independently conducted RCTs in defined populations before they can be substantiated.
Health conditions that Lentein may help support.
Body systems that Lentein may help support.
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