Indian tinospora

Indian Tinospora (Tinospora cordifolia): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Botanical Classification, and Common Forms

1.1 Nomenclature and Taxonomy

Tinospora cordifolia — commonly called guduchi, amrita, or the heart-leaved moonseed — is a herbaceous vine of the family Menispermaceae, native to South and Southeast Asia. The binomial authority is Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. & Thomson. It is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and China.

The plant carries a large number of regional vernacular names. In Sanskrit it is known as "Guduchi" ("one that protects the whole body") or "Amrita" ("the nectar of immortality"). Known as Giloy in Hindi and Guduchi in Sanskrit, extracts of its bark, roots, and leaves have been used in traditional Indian (Ayurveda) medicine for centuries. In Bengali it is known as Gulancha, while in Telugu it is referred to as Tipaatigo, in Gujarati as Galo, and in Tamil as Shindilakodi.

1.2 Botanical Description

It is a large, deciduous, extensively-spreading, climbing vine with several elongated twining branches. Leaves are simple, alternate, and exstipulate with long petioles up to 15 cm long, which are roundish and pulvinate. It gets the name "heart-leaved moonseed" from its heart-shaped leaves and reddish fruit. The plant is found in India, China, and Africa, and is a member of the Menispermaceae family.

1.3 Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

This plant's pharmacological importance stems mostly from its root, stem, and leaf. The whole plant is used in folk and the Ayurvedic system of medicine, alone and in combination with other plants.

Tinospora cordifolia is available in various forms for consumption, reflecting its long history of use. Common preparations include powders, capsules containing concentrated extracts, and fresh juice. Decoctions (kashaya) of the stem are also a classical Ayurvedic preparation. In Ayurvedic traditions, prominent formulations include Guduchyadi Churna for fever and skin disorders, Sanjivani Vati for fever, indigestion, and poisoning, Chyavanaprakash Avaleha as a rejuvenative tonic, Guduchi Ghrita for liver and eye ailments, Brihat Guduchi Taila for external application in joint pain, Amritarishta for fever and anemia, and Guduchi Sattva for diabetes and jaundice.

1.4 Closely Related Species and Risk of Misidentification

The Tinospora genus, belonging to the Menispermaceae family, includes species such as T. cordifolia, T. sinensis, and T. crispa, which have long been utilized in traditional medicine. Misidentification between T. cordifolia and the closely related T. crispa is a clinically relevant concern addressed in detail under Safety.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurvedic Tradition

In Ayurveda, Tinospora cordifolia has been used for over 2,000 years as a rasayana (rejuvenator) for immunity, diabetes, inflammation, and fever. Known regionally as Guduchi (Sanskrit), Amruthu (Kannada), or Tippa-teega (Telugu), it represents one of the most valued herbs in traditional Indian medicine.

Ayurvedic texts, including the Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Astanga Samgraha, describe its use for ailments such as fever, jaundice, diabetes, and skin conditions. It is classified as a "Rasayana" herb, believed to enhance general body resistance and alleviate stress.

Various properties of T. cordifolia described in ancient texts of Ayurveda include Rasayana, Sangrahi, Balya, Agnideepana, Tridoshshamaka, Dahnashaka, Mehnashaka, Kasa-swasahara, Pandunashaka, Kamla-Kushta-Vataraktanashaka, Jwarhara, Krimihara, Prameha, Arshnashaka, and Kricch-Hridroganashak.

2.2 Folk Traditions

It was traditionally administered to treat chronic fever (jwara), general debility, and to purify the blood. In Indian folk traditions, decoctions of the stem were used for treating jaundice, urinary problems, and skin disorders. During epidemic outbreaks, including malaria and dengue fever, T. cordifolia was commonly given to strengthen immunity and reduce fever recurrence.

Extracts of its bark, roots, and leaves have been used in traditional Indian (Ayurveda) medicine for centuries to treat a variety of conditions including diabetes, rheumatism, jaundice, malaria, asthma, depression, pain, and urinary tract infections.

2.3 Other Traditional Medicine Systems

India's mega-biodiversity and knowledge of rich historic traditional systems of medicine — including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Amchi, and local health traditions — give a solid foundation for the use of a wide range of plants in general healthcare and the treatment of common disorders. T. cordifolia has been incorporated into both Ayurvedic and Unani formulations. The plant is used in Ayurvedic "Rasayanas" to improve the immune system and body resistance against infections; extracts of the various parts of the plant including leaves and stem are used in various traditional medicinal formulations.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Phytochemical Classes

Chemical analyses have demonstrated more than 60 compounds in Tinospora species including lactones, steroids, flavonoids, lignans, alkaloids, and most characteristically di- and mono-terpenes including the characteristic clerodane-type furanoditerpenoids.

The chemical constituents reported from this shrub belong to different classes, such as alkaloids, diterpenoid lactones, glycosides, steroids, sesquiterpenoid, phenolics, aliphatic compounds and polysaccharides.

3.2 Alkaloids

Among the alkaloids, the roots and stems of the plants are reported to contain berberine, palmatine, tembatarine, magniflorine, choline, tinosporine, isocolumbine, and minor amounts of jatrorhizine. Palmatine is a quaternary protoberberine alkaloid, reported as an important pharmacologically active constituent of Tinospora cordifolia. Berberine is a well-known isoquinoline alkaloid also used as a marker compound in analytical standardization of extracts.

3.3 Terpenoids and Diterpenoid Lactones

Major isolated compounds include the norditerpene furan glycosides cordifolioside-A, B, C, D, and E; the ducan-type sesquiterpenes tinocordifolin and tinocordifolioside; and the furanoid diterpene glycosides palamatoside C and F and amritoside. The clerodane diterpenoids cordioside, tinosponone, and tinocordiside are also present.

3.4 Steroids and Other Constituents

Steroidal compounds such as giloinsterol, β-sitosterol, and 20α-hydroxy ecdysone are also identified. Other constituents reported include phenolic lignane, octacosanol, heptacosane, beta-sitosterol, tinosporidine, cordifolia, and syringin.

3.5 Polysaccharides

An α-d-glucan (RR1) composed of (1→4) linked backbone and (1→6) linked branches with a molecular mass of more than 550 kDa, exhibiting unique immune stimulating properties, has been isolated from T. cordifolia. This novel polysaccharide is noncytotoxic and nonproliferating to normal lymphocytes as well as tumor cell lines at 0–1000 μg/ml. It activated different subsets of lymphocytes such as natural killer (NK) cells (331%), T cells (102%), and B cells (39%) at 100 μg/ml concentration.

An arabinogalactan polysaccharide (G1-4A), a compound found in T. cordifolia's stem, has protective action against lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxic shock by modulating cytokines and nitric oxide excretion by murine macrophages.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Immunomodulation

Various constituents of T. cordifolia have been studied for immune-stimulant and immunomodulatory activity. T. cordifolia resulted in increased production of the hematopoietic factor GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor) by stimulating macrophages, which induced the enhanced production of leucocytes and suppressed chemotherapeutic neutropenia.

G1-4A, an acidic arabinogalactan derived from the stem of T. cordifolia, acts as a non-microbial TLR4 agonist, which leads to macrophage activation. Research cited in Frontiers in Immunology notes that activation of murine macrophages by G1-4A, a polysaccharide from Tinospora cordifolia, occurs in a TLR4/MyD88-dependent manner.

The immunomodulatory activity of different extracts, fractions, and isolated compounds in relation to phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species production in human neutrophil cells has been investigated. Ethyl acetate, water fractions, and hot water extract exhibited significant immunomodulatory activity with an increase in percentage phagocytosis.

4.2 Anti-Diabetic / Hypoglycemic Mechanisms

An isoquinoline alkaloid-rich fraction (AFTC) derived from the stem, along with the three alkaloids palmatine, jatrorrhizine, and magnoflorine, were evaluated for insulin-mimicking and insulin-releasing effects in vitro and in vivo. Their effect on hepatic gluconeogenesis was examined in rat hepatocytes, and insulin-releasing effect was detected in vitro using a rat pancreatic β-cell line (RINm5F). AFTC significantly decreased gluconeogenesis in rat hepatocytes as insulin did, and it increased insulin secretion in RINm5F cells similar to tolbutamide. In an acute in-vitro test, AFTC, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, and magnoflorine stimulated insulin secretion from the RINm5F cell line.

4.3 Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

In vitro polarized Th1 and iTreg cells treated with T. cordifolia extract showed reduced IFN-γ production and FoxP3 expression. This study provides insight into the plausible mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity of T. cordifolia involving T cells, mainly effective in Th17-associated autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

4.4 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Investigation of oral administration of an alcoholic extract of T. cordifolia roots on antioxidant defense in alloxan-induced diabetic rats showed a significant increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in liver and kidney of diabetic rats; decreased glutathione (GSH) and decreased activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase were also noted. Alcoholic T. cordifolia root extract administered at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight to diabetic rats orally for six weeks normalized the antioxidant status of liver and kidney. These findings are from animal studies and have not been confirmed in human trials.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

The overall body of clinical evidence for T. cordifolia is limited. Although extensive research has been conducted for four decades on T. cordifolia, with discovery of pharmacological properties including immunomodulation, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and hypoglycemic activities, pharmacological activities of extracts and compounds have been studied largely in vitro and in vivo in animals, and only few mechanisms of action have been fully explored. Although used in Ayurveda over centuries in the belief that Tinospora has medicinal properties, there is no evidence from reviews of clinical research to indicate that it has any effect. The following subsections characterize what human and clinical data do exist, their design, and their limitations.

5.1 Allergic Rhinitis

The most frequently cited human clinical trial concerns allergic rhinitis. The efficacy of Tinospora cordifolia (TC) extract in patients of allergic rhinitis was assessed in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Seventy-five patients were randomly given either TC or placebo for 8 weeks; they were clinically examined and hematological and nasal smear tests were performed, with investigations repeated at trial's end. With TC treatment, 100% relief was reported from sneezing in 83% of patients, in 69% from nasal discharge, in 61% from nasal obstruction, and in 71% from nasal pruritus. In the placebo group, there was no relief in 79% from sneezing, in 84.8% from nasal discharge, in 83% from nasal obstruction, and in 88% from nasal pruritus. The difference between TC and placebo groups was reported as highly significant. Limitation: This is a single small trial; independent replication has not been established, and the extract formulation and dose are not fully standardized.

5.2 Immunomodulation in HIV-Positive Patients

Efficacy of Tinospora cordifolia extract (TCE) in HIV-positive patients was assessed in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. 68 HIV-positive participants were randomly assigned to receive either TCE or placebo for six months. After clinical examination, TLC, DLC, ESR, platelet count, hemoglobin, and CD4 count were measured and repeated at bimonthly intervals. TCE treatment caused a significant reduction in eosinophil count and hemoglobin percentage. 60% of patients receiving TCE and 20% on placebo reported a decrease in the incidence of various symptoms associated with disease. Common complaints reported by patients on TCE were anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and weakness.

An independent commentator noted methodological concerns with this study. As compared to the placebo, TCE failed to demonstrate any significant advantage on objective parameters. Yet, at the end of the trial, the patients were offered treatment with TCE instead of being referred to an antiretroviral treatment center. Limitation: Methodological weaknesses, small sample size, and the absence of replication preclude strong conclusions.

5.3 Diabetes and Blood Glucose

The antidiabetic evidence for T. cordifolia is predominantly animal-based. Oral administration of an aqueous T. cordifolia root extract (at doses of 2.5 and 5.0 g/kg) for 6 weeks in alloxan-diabetic rats resulted in a decrease in plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, ceruloplasmin, and alpha-tocopherol. The root extract also caused an increase in glutathione and vitamin C in alloxan diabetes, with the 5.0 g/kg dose showing the highest effect.

The stem of T. cordifolia is frequently used in traditional Indian medicine to treat diabetes by regulating blood glucose levels. Experiments have examined its antineoplastic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, and immunologic properties; however, few clinical trials exist. Evidence strength: Preclinical data are extensive; robust human clinical trials demonstrating glucose-lowering efficacy are lacking.

5.4 Immunostimulation and Hematopoiesis

Tinospora cordifolia has been found to have possibly beneficial biological activities in cell culture and in animal models including hypoglycemic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antimalarial, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and antineoplastic activities. In vitro research has confirmed immune-stimulating activity. Aqueous extracts of the plant have been shown to stimulate the phagocytic and bactericidal activity of neutrophils and macrophages. A high molecular weight polysaccharide was isolated that accounted for most of the immunostimulant activity. These findings are from cell and animal models; human data remain sparse.

5.5 Antimicrobial Activity

G1-4A, a polysaccharide immunomodulator and TLR4 agonist from Tinospora cordifolia, was reported to inhibit the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages as well as in a murine infection model. These findings are from preclinical experimental models only; no clinical trials in humans have been conducted for this indication.

5.6 Anti-Inflammatory and Adaptogenic Activity

Potential medicinal properties reported by scientific research include anti-diabetic, antipyretic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, antioxidant, anti-allergic, anti-stress, anti-leprotic, antimalarial, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and anti-neoplastic activities. However, these findings come predominantly from animal and in vitro studies. Only a few systematic reviews have been published highlighting the possible advantages of the plant; the majority of preclinical and clinical evidence addresses wound healing, diabetes, hepatic, anti-toxic, anti-stress, and inflammatory outcomes. High-quality randomized human trials for most of these indications are absent or very limited.

5.7 Anticancer Activity

Palmatine, a close structural analog of berberine found in T. cordifolia, has been shown to exhibit significant antitumor activity in preclinical models. T. cordifolia has been subjected to pharmacological and clinical investigation with findings in the area of immunomodulation, anticancer, hypoglycemic, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory activity. An in vitro study found an increase in prostate cancer cell proliferation; therefore, tinospora probably should not be consumed in this condition until further studies are conducted. Evidence strength: All anticancer data are in vitro or animal-based; no human clinical trials for cancer treatment exist.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with T. cordifolia

• Immune System: Several medicinal plants have been claimed to have the activity of immunomodulation and Tinospora species constitute a significant class of therapeutic herbs with various pharmacological uses; T. cordifolia is one that has potential to modulate the immune system.
• Endocrine / Metabolic System: Antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities have been documented in animal models of diabetes. The plant has been described for applications countering various disorders as an anti-oxidant, anti-hyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, hepatoprotective, and cardiovascular protective agent.
• Liver (Hepatic System): Traditionally used in jaundice; animal studies suggest hepatoprotective properties, though the safety controversy regarding herb-induced liver injury is a major clinical concern (see Section 7).
• Respiratory System: The randomized clinical trial in allergic rhinitis is the primary human-data entry point for respiratory indications.
• Musculoskeletal System: The herb has been used in treatment of dyspepsia, diabetes, fever, urinary problems, jaundice, chronic diarrhoea, cardiac disease, dysentery, and helminthiasis, as well as gout and arthritis in classical formulations.
• Nervous System / Stress Adaptation: The plant has been described as an adaptogen and metabolism enhancer. These claims are based on animal models and traditional classification; human evidence is absent.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Clinical trials to support dosing are limited, with 300 mg of a standardized aqueous tinospora stem extract taken 3 times daily for up to 6 months being one reported regimen.

In the allergic rhinitis clinical trial, the efficacy of T. cordifolia extract in patients of allergic rhinitis was assessed with 75 patients randomly given either TC or placebo for 8 weeks, though the specific dose per administration was not detailed in the accessible abstract. In the HIV immunomodulatory trial, 68 HIV-positive participants were randomly assigned to receive either TCE or placebo for six months, with specific milligram dosage not reported in the abstract.

In animal studies, specific doses employed include: alcoholic T. cordifolia root extract administered at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight to diabetic rats orally for six weeks. In another rodent study, daily oral administration of a methanolic extract of T. cordifolia stem at 500 mg/kg body weight for 6 weeks was studied in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. These animal doses do not translate directly to human doses. In small, rather short-term clinical studies of different preparations and concentrations of Tinospora cordifolia, adverse side effects were usually described as uncommon and minimal.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

8.1 Herb-Induced Liver Injury (HILI)

T. cordifolia supplement usage is the highest reported causative agent of herb-induced liver injury in India. Reports of more than 50 cases of clinically apparent acute liver injury have appeared since 2017, and particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, probably fueled by the suggestion that Tinospora cordifolia was an immune booster and might ameliorate or prevent COVID-19 infection.

A multicenter nationwide study from India reported: 43 patients, of whom more than half were female, with a median time from initial Giloy consumption to symptom onset of 46 days. Patients presented with acute hepatitis, acute worsening of chronic liver disease (the most common clinical presentation), or acute liver failure. Causality assessment revealed probable liver injury in 67.4% of cases. The most common autoantibody detected was anti-nuclear antibody.

Individual case report data further characterize the injury pattern: the liver injury appears to be idiosyncratic and possibly immune-mediated, with severely elevated transaminases; viral panels, autoimmune serologies, and imaging studies were unremarkable. A Roussel Uclaf causality assessment method (RUCAM) score of 6 was indicative of probable drug/herb-induced liver injury. Following discontinuation and a short course of oral steroids, the transaminases decreased by greater than 50% within two weeks of discontinuation and trended back to baseline within three months.

8.2 The Species-Misidentification Debate

Whether the hepatotoxicity observed is attributable to T. cordifolia itself or to adulteration/misidentification with T. crispa remains scientifically contested. Tinospora cordifolia has been reported to effectively prevent hepatotoxicity, whereas there are an increasing number of cases revealing that Tinospora crispa might have the negative effect of inducing hepatotoxicity. Because of the similar leaves, people may mistake T. crispa for T. cordifolia, and consume it with the purpose of protecting liver function.

One published commentary argued that: "Time-tested herb, Giloy, which has been used for pharmacological benefits since antiquity, as well as clinical and toxicological evidence suggest that Giloy is safe, and the observed negative effects can be attributed to Tinospora crispa, a herb that resembles Tinospora cordifolia in appearance."

However, the NIH LiverTox database documents that: despite these findings, descriptions of liver injury from T. cordifolia similar to those from T. crispa appeared, which were initially dismissed as being due to incorrect identification of T. crispa as T. cordifolia. Advocates of Ayurveda have attempted to blame adulteration for these effects, but investigation showed the toxicity to result directly from compounds in the plant itself, such as furano-diterpenoids.

An image-database review found that over 35 percent of websites failed to accurately identify these two herbs.

8.3 Gastrointestinal Adverse Effects

Limited clinical studies reveal few adverse reactions; GI symptoms — anorexia, nausea, vomiting — have been reported. These were also the most common patient complaints in the HIV trial, as documented above.

8.4 Drug Interactions and Contraindications

T. cordifolia is used in the Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine for the treatment of jaundice, diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis, and is also used as an immunostimulant. Because of its blood glucose–lowering activity demonstrated in animal models, there is a theoretical concern of additive hypoglycemic effect when used alongside antidiabetic medications. An in vitro study found an increase in prostate cancer cells; therefore, tinospora probably should not be consumed in this condition until further studies are conducted.

Because the herb stimulates immune cell activity in preclinical models, theoretical concern exists regarding its use in individuals with autoimmune conditions or those on immunosuppressive therapy, though this has not been formally evaluated in controlled human trials.

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