Goji berry

Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Forms

1.1 Botanical and Chemical Identity

Wolfberry (Lycium barbarum L.), commonly known as goji berry or goji (枸杞), is a multi-branched shrub belonging to the Solanaceae family. Goji belongs to the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family — the same family as tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, and peppers, and the herbs ashwagandha, mandrake, and belladonna. The botanical name L. barbarum was first assigned by the botanist Carolus Linnaeus in 1753.

The genus Lycium (Solanaceae) comprises approximately 70 species and is disjunctly distributed in temperate to subtropical regions of South America, North America, southern Africa, and Eurasia. In East Asia, three varieties of the Lycium genus — Lycium barbarum L., Lycium chinense Miller, and L. ruthenicum Murray — possess medicinal value and are commonly used for treating chronic diseases and improving metabolic disorders. L. barbarum and L. chinense are closely related species, both commonly referred to as red goji or red wolfberry; however, L. barbarum is particularly known for producing larger and sweeter fruits, while L. ruthenicum, or black goji, is distinguished by its dark-coloured berries, which derive their deep hue from anthocyanins.

In the National Pharmacopoeia, some researchers also record the dry fruit of L. barbarum as the fruit of Lycium chinense Mill; according to botanical identification, L. chinense Mill and L. barbarum L. are the same plant. In pharmacopeias, the fruit of the plant is called by the Latin name lycii fructus and the leaves are called herba lycii.

1.2 Plant Morphology and Cultivation

The plant typically grows to a height of 1–3 m, with slender branches and small, light green leaves. The berries are ellipsoid in shape, measuring 1–2 cm in length, and have a distinctive sweet and slightly tangy flavor. Native to East Asia and predominantly cultivated in regions such as the Ningxia Hui and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Regions of China, Lycium barbarum has a long history in traditional medicine. L. barbarum grows in the Ningxia province in China and is regarded as the most indigenous and best quality in Chinese medicine.

Ningxia goji has been cultivated along the fertile floodplains of the Yellow River over centuries. Li's Materia Medica describes the Ningxia region of China as the authentic origin of the goji berry. Today, it is the smallest of China's provinces but its largest goji-producing region, responsible for about 40 percent of the country's goji berry export each year.

1.3 Common Names

Common names include: Barbary wolfberry, Chinese desert thorn, Chinese wolfberry, desert-thorn, Duke of Argyll's tea tree, Fructus Lycii Chinensis, goji, goji berry, Gou Qi Zi, gouqizi, Himalayan goji, kuko, matrimony vine, Ningxia, red diamonds, Tibetan goji, and wolfberry.

1.4 Common Forms and Preparations

Traditionally, dried goji berries are cooked before they are consumed. They are commonly used in Chinese soups and as herbal tea. Moreover, goji berries are used for the production of tincture, wine, and juice. Various parts of the plant, including the root, fruit, and leaf, have been utilised in traditional medicine for their health-promoting properties. Although the Lycium bark/root (called Di Gu Pi) is also used in Chinese medicine, it is considered as a completely different herb, with different actions and indications. Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) leaves are also used as a functional tea or as dietary supplements.

In the contemporary dietary supplement market, goji berry is available in several forms: dried whole fruit, juice, standardized liquid extracts, capsules and tablets containing dried fruit powder or isolated polysaccharide fractions, and as an ingredient in functional food products including cereals, energy bars, and beverages.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

Gou Qi Zi has one of the longest documented histories of any Chinese herb. The character 杞 (qǐ) may appear in oracle bone inscriptions from the Shang Dynasty, and the plant is mentioned in the Shi Jing (Book of Songs, 11th–6th century BCE). It was first formally recorded as a medicinal substance in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, where it was listed as a "superior grade" (上品) herb, meaning it was considered safe for long-term use and beneficial for prolonging life.

Historical texts such as the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica), one of the oldest Chinese pharmacopeias, detail the medicinal properties of these berries. According to TCM principles, goji berries are classified as a tonic for the liver, kidneys, and blood. They were believed to strengthen the body, improve eyesight, promote healthy skin, and extend life expectancy. Traditional healers prescribed them in soups, teas, and tinctures to restore balance to the body's energy, or qi.

In the 16th century, during the Ming dynasty, Chinese herbalist Li Shizhen described goji in depth and extolled its numerous benefits in the Compendium of Materia Medica. This collection of books was a treatise on traditional Chinese medicine. Li wrote that the goji aids the liver and kidney channels.

In TCM, Gouqizi is used as a mild Yin tonic, enriching Yin in the liver and kidneys whilst moistening lung Yin. Goji berries are prescribed in TCM to tonify the yin of the liver and yin of the kidneys, brighten the eyes, and moisten the lungs. Some of the primary conditions and symptoms that goji berries are most commonly prescribed for include knee pain, tinnitus, diabetes, anemia, and impaired vision; they are also named as an anti-aging supplement and as a fertility treatment.

2.2 East Asian Traditional Use Beyond China

The fruit has also been an ingredient in East Asian traditional medicine, namely traditional Chinese, Japanese, and Korean medicine, since at least the 3rd century AD. Goji has been used for thousands of years in traditional Chinese, Korean, and Japanese medicine for its health and longevity-sustaining properties. In Korean medicine it is known as kugija (구기자), and in Japanese medicine as kukoshi (クコシ).

2.3 Preparation Methods in Traditional Use

Traditional healers prescribed goji berries in soups, teas, and tinctures to restore balance to the body's energy, or qi. The berries were also a common ingredient in herbal formulas designed to combat fatigue, support fertility, and enhance immune resilience. While still considered exotic in the western world, goji berries are widely consumed in China as a nourishing convalescent food. The dried ripe fruit of Lycium barbarum L. (Ningxia gouqi) is harvested from summer to autumn, according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

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3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Chemical Composition

Lycium barbarum contains abundant Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs), betaine, phenolics, carotenoids (zeaxanthin and β-carotene), cerebroside, 2-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-l-ascorbic acid (AA-2βG), β-sitosterol, flavonoids, and vitamins (in particular, riboflavin, thiamine, and ascorbic acid). Lycium barbarum contains various chemical components, including LBP, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, amino acids, and trace elements (e.g., zinc and selenium).

The proximate composition of dry goji berry fruits is approximately 46% carbohydrates, 13% protein, 1.5% fat, and 16% dietary fiber.

3.2 Lycium Barbarum Polysaccharides (LBPs)

LBPs are the primary active components of Lycium barbarum. The high concentration of LBPs is thought to underlie the plant's broad range of pharmacological activities. LBPs comprise approximately 5%–8% of the dried fruits.

Primary bioactive constituents in Lycium barbarum berries include Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP): heteropolysaccharides composed of arabinose, galactose, glucose, and mannose units. The berries also contain unique carbohydrates that are present as conjugates with peptides or proteins, which are often referred to as L. barbarum polysaccharides (LBP).

As a key "medicine food homology" resource, Lycium barbarum has been traditionally employed in Chinese medicine to tonify the liver and kidneys, boost essence and brighten the eyes, and strengthen immune function. Modern pharmacological studies attribute its diverse bioactivities to a key class of active compounds known as LBP. Research has demonstrated that LBP possesses a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-aging, neuroprotective, anti-tumor, and notably, immunomodulatory effects.

3.3 Carotenoids: Zeaxanthin and β-Carotene

Goji berries contain the highest amount of zeaxanthin among all known dietary sources, and along with lutein and a distinctive polysaccharide, may offer an approach to reduce the risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Wolfberries contain diester forms of these carotenoids, which may enhance their bioavailability and efficacy in supporting eye health. The intake of zeaxanthin dipalmitate (ZD) extracts from goji berry increases plasma zeaxanthin to a greater extent than non-esterified zeaxanthin supplementation.

3.4 Betaine

Valuable components of L. barbarum are not limited to its colored components containing zeaxanthin and carotene, but include the polysaccharides and small molecules such as betaine, cerebroside, β-sitosterol, p-coumaric acid, and various vitamins. Betaine has antioxidant activity. The compound acts as an osmoprotectant and methyl donor, with proposed roles in liver function and homocysteine metabolism, though specific human clinical trials isolating betaine from L. barbarum in this context are limited.

3.5 Flavonoids, Phenolics, and Other Compounds

HPLC-DAD/ESI-ToF-MS analysis of Lycium barbarum leaves revealed the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids, with chlorogenic acid and rutin being the dominant compounds in the cultivated plants, and rutin and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside in wild-growing plants. The leaves, fruits, and the root bark of Lycium barbarum contain abundant polysaccharides, carotenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, amides, peptides, anthraquinones, coumarins, lignanoids, terpenoids, sterols, steroids, organic acids, anthocyanins, essential oils, and glycolipids.

3.6 Vitamins and Minerals

Key berry constituents include Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs), betaine, carotene, zeaxanthin, thiamine, riboflavin, flavonoids, vitamins A and C, and linoleic acid. Environmental and climatic factors can greatly affect accumulation of secondary metabolites, carotenoids, and other antioxidants in goji berry plants.

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4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Goji berries are high antioxidant potential fruits which alleviate oxidative stress to confer many health protective benefits such as preventing free radicals from damaging DNA, lipids, and proteins. LBPs have been reported to mediate significant anti-aging effects through antioxidant, immunoregulative, anti-apoptotic activities, and by reducing DNA damage. Other constituents of Lycium barbarum, such as phenolics, AA-2βG, carotenoids (zeaxanthin and β-carotene), betaine, cerebroside, β-sitosterol, flavonoids, riboflavin, and thiamine, also have significant antioxidant effects.

4.2 Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

In cell-culture studies, LBP (at concentrations of 100–500 μg/mL) reduced TNF-α and IL-6 secretion and inhibited NF-κB activation. LBP also reduced apoptosis in gastric mucosal cells, lowered Bax protein expression, and mitigated apoptosis by inhibiting c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation.

4.3 Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Polysaccharides extracted from L. barbarum can protect neurons against beta-amyloid peptide toxicity in neuronal cell cultures, and retinal ganglion cells in an experimental model of glaucoma. LBPs appear to protect the visual system through four primary processes: neuroprotection, blood-retinal barrier stabilization, antioxidation, and modulation of retinal immune function via the retinal microglial cells and Müller cells. LBPs can inhibit two key pro-apoptotic signaling pathways (JNK and PKR) in amyloid-β peptide neurotoxicity.

4.4 Anti-Diabetic Mechanisms

LBP can reduce intestinal glucose digestion and absorption, improve glycolipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity, protect pancreatic β-cell function, inhibit oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, and regulate gut microbiota, thus alleviating diabetes mellitus.

4.5 Anti-Tumor Mechanisms (Preclinical)

In preclinical studies, LBP suppresses the growth of mouse liver cancer H22 cells by inducing apoptosis, disrupting mitochondrial membrane potential, and causing S-phase cell cycle arrest. LBP treatment significantly suppressed the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells and induced cell cycle arrest in vitro. These findings are from laboratory and animal models and have not been translated to confirmed human clinical outcomes.

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5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Ocular Health and Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)

A randomized, unmasked, parallel-arm study examined the effects of zeaxanthin-rich goji berry intake on macular pigment optical density (MPOD) and skin carotenoids in healthy individuals. The study was conducted with 27 participants, aged 45–65, who consumed either 28 g of goji berries or a supplement containing 6 mg lutein and 4 mg zeaxanthin, five times weekly for 90 days. After 90 days, MPOD was significantly increased in the goji berry group at 0.25 and 1.75 retinal eccentricities (p = 0.029 and p = 0.044, respectively), while no changes were noted in the supplement group.

A separate study evaluated the effects of daily supplementation with a proprietary milk-based formulation of goji berry (Lacto-Wolfberry, or LWB) on macular characteristics and plasma zeaxanthin and antioxidant capacity levels in elderly subjects. This was a double-masked, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in healthy elderly subjects (aged 65 to 70 years) receiving 13.7 g/day of LWB (n = 75) or placebo (n = 75) for 90 days. Subjects underwent direct ophthalmic examination to assess pigmentation and soft drusen count in the macula, along with blood draws to measure plasma zeaxanthin level and total antioxidant capacity. Participants consuming LWB for 90 days exhibited stable macular pigmentation and a significant reduction in soft drusen accumulation, alongside a 26% increase in plasma zeaxanthin levels and a 57% rise in total antioxidant capacity compared to the placebo group.

In individuals from China with signs of early AMD, 25 g of daily consumption of goji berries for 90 days significantly increased both serum zeaxanthin and MPOD.

One study found a 2.5-fold increase in fasting plasma zeaxanthin levels post-supplementation, which has been linked to a reduced risk of late AMD.

Evidence strength: While results suggest potential benefits, larger, standardized studies are necessary to clarify the mechanisms and effects of these foods on AMD. Clinicians should only consider mentioning blueberries and goji berries as part of a broader diet that is rich in antioxidants, as this may help contribute to overall eye health. Currently, most studies on the effects of LBP on eye diseases are at the empirical stage, and some are in clinical trials. The results of the research are one-sided, leaving room for further exploration.

5.2 Antioxidant and General Well-Being Effects

Participants in one intervention group consumed 120 mL/day of commercial goji juice (GoChi), standardized to contain LBP equivalent in at least 150 g of fresh fruit. Consistent with traditional use, the main beneficial effects observed in the intervention group after 14 days included increasing general well-being and improving neurological/psychological performances and gastrointestinal functions.

Evidence strength: The general well-being data comes from a single short-term, commercially-funded study. These findings are preliminary and require independent replication in longer, larger trials.

5.3 Cardiometabolic and Lipid Effects

A meta-analysis of 7 low-quality randomized controlled trials (N = 548) suggested a reduction in cardiometabolic risk factors with supplementation for at least 3 months in healthy subjects at least 60 years of age. Furthermore, a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials focusing on goji berries indicated that whole goji berries had more pronounced positive effects on blood lipid and lipoprotein profiles than goji berry extract, suggesting that incorporating whole goji berries into dietary strategies may be beneficial to cardiovascular health.

Evidence strength: The supporting meta-analyses describe the underlying trials as being of low quality. The overall body of cardiometabolic evidence is preliminary and insufficient for definitive clinical recommendations.

5.4 Diabetes and Glycemic Control

Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP), a bioactive compound isolated from Lycium barbarum L. fruits, was shown to improve glycolipid parameters and mitigate glucotoxicity-induced target organ damage, making it a promising multifunctional hypoglycemic agent. Studies conducted over the past 20 years have reviewed the potential benefits and molecular mechanisms of LBP in preventing and combating diabetes mellitus and its chronic complications.

Despite the promising preclinical evidence, further exploration of LBP's bioavailability, toxicology, structure–activity, and dose-effect relationships would still be required before clinical translation studies.

Evidence strength: Evidence for anti-diabetic effects is predominantly from animal and in-vitro studies. Robust human clinical trial data are lacking as of current review literature.

5.5 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function

Researchers have reported the therapeutic effects of LBPs on learning, memory, and neurogenesis in scopolamine-treated rats. LBPs were administered via gastric perfusion for 2 weeks before the onset of subcutaneous scopolamine treatment for a further 4 weeks. Scopolamine impaired performance in novel object and object location recognition tasks, and Morris water maze. However, dual scopolamine- and LBP-treated rats spent significantly more time exploring the novel object or location in the recognition tasks and had significantly shorter escape latency in the water maze.

The neuroprotective effects of L. barbarum were further demonstrated in the preservation of cognitive functions and decrease in amyloid-β deposition in transgenic Alzheimer's disease mice.

Evidence strength: Neuroprotection and cognition data are derived from animal and in-vitro models. Controlled human clinical trials in this area are lacking. Evidence remains preclinical.

5.6 Immune Function

There is good evidence from existing studies on the antifibrotic, antioxidizing, neuroprotective, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides. However, there is a need for further studies in the form of large-scale clinical trials to support its use in humans.

Despite robust preclinical evidence for immunomodulatory effects, clinical translation is hampered by the heterogeneity of LBP preparations. This underscores the necessity of standardizing LBP based on structure-activity relationship (SAR) insights to develop precision immunomodulators for therapeutic applications.

Evidence strength: Immunomodulatory evidence is extensive in preclinical models but translational human clinical data remain sparse and inconsistent due to preparation variability.

5.7 Hepatoprotection

Results from existing studies suggest that LBP is a promising therapeutic agent, particularly in the management of liver disease, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes. There is also significant potential for LBP as a safe and effective topical treatment in ocular surface diseases, owing to promising in vitro results and a lack of demonstrated toxic effects to corneal epithelial cells.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective evidence is largely from animal models and in-vitro studies. Human clinical data are very limited.

5.8 Anti-Aging

LBPs have been reported to mediate significant anti-aging effects through antioxidant, immunoregulative, anti-apoptotic activities, and by reducing DNA damage. The basic scientific evidence for anti-aging effects of LBPs is already available. However, additional studies are needed to understand the mechanisms by which LBPs mediate anti-aging properties. The major L. barbarum constituents demonstrating anti-aging properties include LB polysaccharides, carotenoids (zeaxanthin and β-carotene), betaine, flavonoids, and vitamins.

Evidence strength: Anti-aging evidence is mechanistically plausible and supported by animal data, but controlled human clinical data specifically targeting aging outcomes are not yet sufficient to draw clinical conclusions.

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6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Key health benefit areas covered in clinical and preclinical research include immune modulation, antioxidative effects, mental health support, ocular health preservation, and metabolic and cardiovascular regulation. Research highlights positive associations with cardiovascular, visual, neurological, and metabolic health, including lipid-lowering and hypoglycemic activities, as well as hepatoprotective and immune-supporting roles.

• Ocular system: Macular pigment density, zeaxanthin bioavailability, protection against age-related macular degeneration, retinal neuroprotection, glaucoma (preclinical).
• Immune system: Immunomodulation via LBP-mediated effects on macrophage activation, NK cells, and cytokine regulation (largely preclinical).
• Metabolic/endocrine system: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity, lipid profiles.
• Nervous system: Neuroprotection, anti-amyloid-β activity, cognitive function support (animal models).
• Hepatic system: Hepatoprotection, reduction of hepatic fibrosis markers (preclinical).
• Cardiovascular system: Lipid-lowering, cardiometabolic risk factor reduction (preliminary human data).

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7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research

The dose of goji berries used in traditional herbal formulas is in the range of 6–18 g. However, if goji berries are used as a single herb remedy, this dose may be insufficient because the other herbs in the specific formulation may contain the same components, such as polysaccharides and carotenoids.

One recommended therapy in the treatment of atrophic gastritis is to consume twice daily with 10 g of Lycium fruits each time. Additionally, 15 g of goji berries per day is considered beneficial to supply adequate zeaxanthin, estimated at 3 mg/day as a dietary supplement for eye health. A 20 g Lycium fruit in a simple tea is able to improve decreased visual perception. The dosage range of goji berry is altered to 15–30 grams (a 2- to 5-fold increase) when it is the main herb, compared to the complex formula where the dosage range is around 6–18 g.

Specific dosages reported across key clinical studies include:

• In a randomized pilot trial, participants consumed 28 g of goji berries five times weekly for 90 days (MPOD/macular health study, n = 27, aged 45–65).
• In a double-masked, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, elderly subjects (aged 65–70) received 13.7 g/day of a milk-based LWB formulation or placebo for 90 days (n = 75 per group).
• In a study involving Chinese individuals with signs of early AMD, 25 g daily for 90 days was used.
• In a general well-being intervention, participants consumed 120 mL/day of standardized commercial goji juice (GoChi), standardized to contain LBP equivalent in at least 150 g of fresh fruit.
• The Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies L. barbarum is widely used in food and herbal medicine at 6–12 g daily.

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8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

8.1 General Tolerability

Clinical trials report few or no adverse reactions. Varying degrees of hypersensitivity reactions have been reported, including a case report of anaphylaxis.

8.2 Warfarin Interaction

Application of the Naranjo adverse drug reaction probability scale indicated a probable relationship (score of 6) between elevated INR with associated bleeding and concomitant use of L. barbarum and warfarin. Two other published reports have described similar interactions between warfarin and a tea containing L. barbarum.

One case describes a 71-year-old Ecuadorean-American woman who was taking warfarin and was hospitalized for a markedly elevated, indeterminate international normalized ratio (INR) (prothrombin time > 120 sec) after consumption of goji juice. She had undergone knee surgery approximately 3 months earlier at which time warfarin therapy was started. She reported no changes in dietary habits or lifestyle other than drinking goji juice for 4 days before hospitalization. On presentation to the emergency department, she described symptoms of epistaxis, bruising, and rectal bleeding. After discontinuation of the goji juice and warfarin, the patient was treated with phytonadione, and her INR decreased to 2.6 over 2 days.

This interaction pattern illustrates that large doses (more than 6–12 g) of Gouqizi can significantly enhance the anticoagulant action of warfarin. The potential interactions between goji berries and other prescribed medications remain largely unexplored.

8.3 Allergic Reactions and Cross-Reactivity

In a study of 30 plant food-allergic individuals in Spain, skin tests to goji berries were positive in 24 patients (77%), including 5 symptomatic and 19 asymptomatic patients. Lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) seem to be involved in allergic sensitization to L. barbarum berries, and results have demonstrated a high degree of cross-reactivity between goji berry and peach and tomato.

A 37-year-old Italian man with known allergies to pollen since childhood experienced goji berry–dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis. Subsequent skin prick tests were positive for grass, ragweed, mugwort, pellitory, birch, olive tree, tomato, peanut, and hazelnut.

8.4 Atropine Content

While atropine, a toxic alkaloid, is present in goji berries, HPLC-MS analysis of eight goji berry samples indicated a maximum atropine concentration of 19 ppb, significantly below established toxicity thresholds.

8.5 Hepatotoxicity Reports

At least one case report linked goji berry tea consumption (3 times per day) to a hepatotoxic reaction, presenting with nonbloody diarrhea, asthenia, colic abdominal pain, mild mucocutaneous jaundice, and a generalized erythematous and pruriginous maculopapular rash, with elevated liver function tests.

8.6 Preclinical Toxicology Signals

A 28-day subchronic oral toxicity study of goji berry juice in female Wistar rats revealed higher hepatic transaminase levels and reactive species generation in the liver and kidney, which may have led to imbalanced antioxidant defenses and damaged lipids and proteins. Additionally, kidney damage with increased Bowman space was observed. The 28-day findings indicate that goji berry juice at doses equivalent to typical human consumption can induce early redox imbalances and hepatic and renal biochemical alterations in female rats, warranting caution and further long-term, sex-inclusive studies. These findings are from an animal model and their direct relevance to human use at typical dietary doses has not been established.

8.7 Overall Evidence Summary on Safety

Although existing studies, particularly clinical trials, remain limited and require further validation, current evidence supports goji berries as a promising functional food with significant therapeutic potential. Clinical translation is hampered by the heterogeneity of LBP preparations. The warfarin interaction, documented in multiple case reports, represents the most clinically significant and consistently observed safety concern to date.

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