Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. / Chrysanthemum indicum L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

1.1 Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Chrysanthemum is a dicotyledonous genus belonging to the family Asteraceae. These herbaceous annual or perennial plants originated in East Asia and are of great ornamental, medicinal, environmental, and industrial values. The primary medicinal species, Chrysanthemum morifolium, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the Asteraceae family used as both medicine and food owing to its superior pharmacological properties.

Two species dominate medicinal and dietary supplement use:

• Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. — the cultivated florist's chrysanthemum, known in Chinese as Ju Hua (菊花) or Huáng jú; also referred to as Chrysanthemum sinense in older literature.
• Chrysanthemum indicum L. — the wild chrysanthemum, known as Ye Ju Hua (野菊花), used in TCM formulations especially for anti-infective applications.

Additional species with documented use include Chrysanthemum japonense, Chrysanthemum zawadskii, Chrysanthemum boreale, and Chrysanthemum coronarium. Chrysanthemum is a perennial flowering plant from the Asteraceae family that is native to Asia and northeastern Europe.

The dry capitulum of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Compositae) is a popular traditional Chinese medicine known as "Ju Hua" in China, included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as Chrysanthemi Flos. It is also widely used as an herbal tea, beverage, and seasoning due to its unique flavour, colour, and health benefits.

1.2 Official Pharmacopeial Recognition

Both C. morifolium and C. indicum are documented in traditional Chinese medicine and the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (2020 edition), where they are renowned for their heat-clearing and detoxifying properties. For medicinal chrysanthemum, it is mainly divided into five categories in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission 2020 edition, including Gongju, Hangju, Huaiju, Qiju, and Chuju, which are commonly used for flu and cold caused by wind-heat syndrome.

1.3 Common Forms and Preparations

Based on their diverse application, C. morifolium is classified into medicinal, tea, edible, and ornamental types. Preparations used in traditional medicine and dietary supplement practice include:

• Dried flower heads (capitula): Irrespective of its application, C. morifolium must be dried before use. Shade drying (YG) and heat drying (HG) are the two drying methods used in most origins.
• Herbal tea (infusion): The chrysanthemum dried flowers are used to make tea, an herbal infusion that has been used in TCM since 1500 BCE. Its petals are believed to promote longevity when eaten as a salad.
• Water extracts and ethanol extracts: Used in pharmacological research and standardized supplement manufacturing.
• Essential oil: The volatile chemical compounds of chrysanthemum essential oil are mainly composed of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, acids, esters, and alcohols.
• Standardized capsule or tablet extracts: Used in clinical studies and the dietary supplement industry, typically standardized to flavonoid content.
• Topical preparations: Applied in cosmetics, utilizing the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of flower extracts.

Consequently, Chrysanthemum morifolium has been increasingly incorporated into functional foods, beverages, nutraceuticals, and cosmetic products.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 China

The dried flowers of the chrysanthemum plant were used as an herbal remedy in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as early as 1500 B.C. Chrysanthemum has been valued in China for over 2,000 years. Ancient medical texts such as the Shennong Bencao Jing (The Divine Farmer's Classic of Materia Medica) mention chrysanthemum as a herb with cooling energy.

C. morifolium has a long history of use as a traditional Chinese medicine, dating back to the Qin and Han dynasties. As a herbal tea, it was first brewed and popularized during the Song Dynasty (960 AD–1279 AD) and for centuries it was used to treat respiratory issues, blood pressure irregularities, and to calm the nerves.

In TCM, chrysanthemum flower (Ju Hua) is classified by its fundamental properties and actions:

• According to TCM theory, foods and herbs can either warm or cool the body. Chrysanthemum is classified as cooling, meaning it helps clear heat and toxins.
• It was traditionally prescribed for a variety of ailments including headaches, dizziness, and visual disturbances. Specifically, it was used to help conditions associated with what TCM practitioners call "liver heat" or "liver fire."
• One of the most famous uses of chrysanthemum is for the eyes. In ancient times, people who worked by candlelight or scholars who studied long hours often suffered from eye strain. Chrysanthemum tea was recommended to ease dry eyes, redness, and blurry vision.
• The flower is also known for its effects on the cardiovascular system, making it a popular remedy for conditions such as hypertension and liver-fire hyperactivity syndrome. Additionally, it has been used to alleviate symptoms of colds, headaches, and dizziness.

Chrysanthemi Flos (C. Flos) known as "Ju Hua" in China, derived from the dry flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Asteraceae), is one of the most frequently used traditional Chinese herbal medicines with the function of dispelling wind, dissipating heat, clearing the liver, and improving eyesight, and is also used as a health-care edible herb medicine in China.

2.2 Spread Beyond China

C. morifolium originated in China and was introduced to Japan as a famous spice in the 12th century, where it was much-loved by the Japanese imperial family. Then, it was spread to Europe and America in the 17th century and is used mainly as an ornamental plant at present. Chrysanthemum was brought over to Japan in the 8th century AD, where it was adopted as the Emperor's official seal and the symbol of the imperial throne.

Chrysanthemum, commonly called gul-e-daudi or golden flower autumn queen, has been cultivated for more than 2,000 years in Iran. In East and Southeast Asian cultures, the flowers are consumed as a culinary vegetable (Chrysanthemum coronarium, garland chrysanthemum), used in salads, and prepared as ritual offerings.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Flavonoids

Given the abundance of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids — the primary medicinal active constituents of C. morifolium — it is important to determine whether the composition and content of these compounds are altered during drying processes.

The principal flavonoids identified in C. morifolium include:

• Luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside — major anti-inflammatory agents
• Apigenin and apigenin-7-O-glucoside — antioxidant and sedative-active compounds
• Quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol
• Acacetin and its glycosides
• Isorhamnetin

The flower extracts of chrysanthemum have been assessed to possess a rich phytochemical profile, including compounds such as cyanidin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl) glucoside, delphinidin 3-O-(6″-O-malonyl) glucoside-3′, rutin, quercetin, isorhamnetin, rutinoside, and others.

Thirteen important compounds of chrysanthemum flowers are acacetin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, acaciin, acacetin 7-O-(6″-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-beta-sophoroside, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, syringaresinol O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, 5,7-dihydroxychromone, uracil, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyloxybenzoic acid, boscialin, and blumenol A.

3.2 Phenolic Acids (Caffeoylquinic Acids)

Caffeoylquinic acids are the other major class of bioactive phenolics. Key compounds include:

• Chlorogenic acid (3-O-caffeoylquinic acid)
• 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-DCQA)
• 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (4,5-DCQA)
• Isochlorogenic acids A and C

Among these, chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside are mainly associated with antioxidant activity. Meanwhile, chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, luteolin, and luteolin-7-O-glucoside are strongly linked with the anti-inflammatory activity of C. morifolium.

HPLC analysis indicated that the purple extract had the highest concentration of luteolin (0.2403% w/w), while the yellow extract contained the highest levels of chlorogenic acid (0.4320% w/w) and caffeic acid (0.0289% w/w).

3.3 Terpenoids

Sesquiterpenoids are one of the major classes of chemical constituents reported from the Chrysanthemum genus. To date, more than 135 sesquiterpenoids have been isolated and identified from the whole genus. These include 26 germacrane-type, 26 eudesmane-type, 64 guaianolide-type, 4 bisabolane-type, and 15 other-type sesquiterpenoids. Pharmacological studies have proven the biological potential of sesquiterpenoids isolated from Chrysanthemum species, reporting anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antitumor, insecticidal, and antiviral activities for these molecules.

Terpenoids may also play a role in the anti-inflammatory activity of C. morifolium, exerting an anti-asthmatic function.

3.4 Polysaccharides

Chrysanthemum morifolium contains a diverse array of health-promoting compounds, including micronutrients, macronutrients, and bioactive substances such as minerals, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, proteins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. Polysaccharides extracted from chrysanthemum have been studied for immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective properties in preclinical models.

3.5 Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, and Minor Constituents

Most Chrysanthemum spp. flowers contain anthocyanins — cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-(3″-malonoyl) glucoside — and carotenoids: lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, 13-cis-β-carotene, α-carotene, trans-β-carotene, and 9-cis-β-carotene.

The most important chemical extracts of chrysanthemum also include betaine, choline, and vitamin B1. Physicochemical analyses revealed that its composition (on a dry weight basis) includes moisture (11.7%), ash (3.7%), fat (6.1%), crude protein (1.1%), crude fiber, and carbohydrates.

3.6 Volatile Oils

Phenylpropanoids, including simple forms (e.g., caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid) and coumarins (e.g., imperatorin), contribute significantly to chrysanthemum antipyretic, analgesic, and antioxidant effects. Volatile oils (VOs) represent another major class of chemical components in chrysanthemum, demonstrating a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and sedative-hypnotic properties.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Studies indicate that quercetin derived from chrysanthemum exerts antioxidant effects by scavenging ROS, activating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway, and promoting glutathione (GSH) synthesis. Chlorogenic acid enhances hepatic antioxidant capacity by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway and regulating the gene expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC).

Chrysanthemum morifolium extract (CE) exhibited potent antioxidant activity, significantly reducing reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde levels while improving cell survival under oxidative stress. It upregulated antioxidant enzyme expression and activated the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, effects linked to its constituent luteolin-7-glucoside.

4.2 Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Leaf extracts from chrysanthemum taxa dose-dependently suppressed LPS-stimulated NO production significantly (p<0.05) and inhibited production of LPS-induced PGE2 compared with controls. The extracts reduced the LPS-induced expressions of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, and inhibited LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 production for anti-inflammatory effects.

Luteolin, as well as apigenin, inhibited NO production in IL-1β-treated rat hepatocytes. Luteolin inhibits inflammatory responses and protects against vascular inflammation induced by tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). In rat hepatocytes, these inflammatory responses are regulated by the IL-1 receptor (IL1R) signaling pathway mediated with the transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NF-κB).

Components such as quercetin and chlorogenic acid activate antioxidant pathways in the body by increasing the expression of proteins that protect against oxidative damage through Nrf2 pathways. By blocking NF-κB and MAPKs, anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are reduced, modulating inflammatory pathways.

In animal models, handelin from C. boreale produced anti-inflammatory effects that were linked to downregulation of NF-κB signaling and pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

4.3 Cardiovascular Mechanisms

Studies investigated the effects of a hot water extract of Chrysanthemum morifolium (HCM), an ethanol extract (ECM), and the abundant flavonoids apigenin and luteolin in CM on the oxidized LDL (oxLDL)-induced expression of ICAM-1 and E-selectin in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Chrysanthemum extracts containing different components have the ability to improve myocardial nutrition, remove reactive oxygen radicals, strengthen vascular resistance, and lower blood lipids.

4.4 Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Active compounds of C. morifolium displayed strong neuroprotective activity on H2O2-induced neurotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. The total flavones extracted from C. morifolium were reported to protect against ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury in model rats. This reported neuroprotective effect may critically be associated with the antioxidative damage activity.

4.5 GABAergic/Sedative Mechanisms

Apigenin and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Q3G) have been reported to exhibit sedative-hypnotic effects through the benzodiazepine receptor-binding mechanism. In pentobarbital-induced sleep models, chrysanthemum extract increased sleep duration by up to 1.41-fold compared to controls, with luteolin-7-glucoside showing similar efficacy.

4.6 Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

Apigenin and other compounds trigger apoptosis pathways, acting on p53, Bcl-2, and caspase pathways to increase the death of cancer cells. Flavonoids possess anticancer properties; for example, luteolin inhibits the JAK/STAT and PI3K/Akt pathways, which in turn decreases tumor development and metastasis.

Flavonoids in C. morifolium inhibit phospholipase A2 (PLA2), modulate glycerophospholipid and sphingomyelin metabolic pathways, and delay the pathology of acute liver injury.

5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area

5.1 Antioxidant Activity

Pharmacological research of C. morifolium shows that it has antioxidation, antimicrobial, anti-inflammation, anti-tumor, anti-hyperlipidemia and hypertension, and neuroprotective activity. Various studies focused on its antioxidation activity evidence the profound reactive oxygen free radical scavenging and anti-oxidative damage activities.

No evidence supporting chrysanthemum in modulation of postprandial lipemia and antioxidant status in humans previously existed. A study was conducted to analyze the composition of Imperial Chrysanthemum (IC) extract and determine the effect on changes in postprandial glycemic and lipemic response and antioxidant status in adults after consumption of a high-fat meal. Following a randomized design, 37 healthy adults (age 25.2 ± 2.6 years, BMI 20.9 ± 1.5 kg/m²) were assigned to two groups that consumed the high-fat meal, or high-fat meal supplemented by IC extract. This study reported for the first time the antioxidant effect of IC on healthy people after a high-fat meal. The study population was small, however, and its findings are preliminary.

Quantitative analysis revealed that purple and yellow flower extracts possessed significantly higher total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) compared to the white flower extract. These extracts also exhibited superior antioxidant activity, as measured by DPPH and ABTS assays. These findings are in vitro.

Evidence strength: Strong in vitro and animal data; very limited human clinical evidence, with one small randomized trial on postprandial antioxidant status.

5.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Substantial in vitro and in vivo evidence demonstrates chrysanthemum's efficacy as a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agent, with additional immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, anti-obesogenic, and antidiabetic properties. These activities are primarily attributed to flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, and volatile oils, which act via several mechanisms such as free radical scavenging, regulation of NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling, and targeting gut microbiota.

Chrysanthemum also contains several anti-inflammatory compounds, mainly including chlorogenic acid, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, and linarin. Chlorogenic acid reduces levels of pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-2, TNF-α, and MDA, demonstrating efficacy against oxidative arthritis. These findings are based on in vitro and rodent models.

Chrysanthemum significantly decreased serum IgE, IgG1, IL-4, and IFN-γ levels and reduced mRNA levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-13 in dorsal skin lesions in preclinical (animal) models.

Evidence strength: Robust mechanistic and in vitro evidence; well-documented in animal models; human clinical trials specifically targeting inflammation remain scarce.

5.3 Cardiovascular Health (Blood Pressure and Lipids)

The flower and aerial parts of many chrysanthemum species are used in traditional medicine to treat hypertension, angina, fever, and various inflammatory diseases.

Studies in rats show that some flavonoid combinations show significant physiological effects, reducing increases in heart rate and blood pressure, suggesting that these compounds may help regulate cardiovascular function, and may have preventive or therapeutic effects on cardiovascular disease. These results highlight the importance of further exploring the use of flavonoids in cardiovascular health.

A polyphenol-rich C. morifolium extract inhibited hyperlipidemic fatty liver in mice through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-alpha-mediated pathway.

C. morifolium has been shown to have numerous antioxidant properties, including the ability to resist fatigue, improve cardiovascular system function, and lower lipid serum levels.

People use chrysanthemum for chest pain (angina), high blood pressure, common cold, diabetes, stroke, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.

Evidence strength: Extensive preclinical (animal and in vitro) evidence; limited and inconclusive human clinical trials. Regulatory bodies such as WebMD/Natural Medicines note insufficient clinical evidence to confirm cardiovascular benefit in humans.

5.4 Diabetes and Blood Sugar

Early research suggests that taking a specific product containing Chinese chrysanthemum and chromium (jiangtangkang) by mouth three times daily for 6 months might lower blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes. This was a small, early-phase study using a combination product, not chrysanthemum alone, so attribution of effect is unclear.

Various chrysanthemum species also have antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects documented in preclinical studies.

The active ingredients of chrysanthemum, such as naringenin and apigenin, have shown antidepressant effects by regulating various metabolic pathways; the synergistic effect of active ingredients such as apigenin and kaempferol in chrysanthemum has the effect of treating diseases such as gout by inhibiting the activity of xanthine oxidase.

Evidence strength: Preliminary human data from one combination product trial; preclinical evidence in rodent models of diabetes; no standalone, large-scale RCTs confirmed.

5.5 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Health

In a study, C. morifolium dried flowers were investigated for their neuroprotective effect. Isolated compounds — caffeoylquinic acid derivatives, flavanone glycoside, eriodictyol 7-O-β-D-rutinoside, eriodictyol, eriodictyol 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, eriodictyol 7-O-β-D-glucuronide, hesperetin 7-O-β-D-glucuronide — were tested in SH-SY5Y cells for their neuroprotective effect against H2O2-induced cell toxicity. The compounds flavanone glycoside and eriodictyol showed a moderate effect on SH-SY5Y cell injury, with cell feasibility of 65.08% and 62.24%, respectively.

Phenolic glycosides and lignans have also been identified as significant neuroprotective agents, offering potential benefits in treating neurodegenerative diseases.

Small studies using chrysanthemum extracts found neuroprotective effects in ischemic stroke patients. However, details on study size, design, and reproducibility of such clinical findings are limited.

Evidence strength: Preclinical evidence (cell lines and animal models) is consistent; very limited human data; no adequately powered RCTs specifically for cognitive or neurological outcomes have been published.

5.6 Eye Health

Modern pharmacological research also shows that chrysanthemum possesses heat dissipation, detoxification, eye-brightening, and blood pressure-lowering effects.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (referenced as Kan J. et al., Am J Clin Nutr 2020;112(2):334–342) investigated a botanical formula on eye fatigue and dry eye — this study is cited in the WebMD/Natural Medicines reference database. A novel botanical formula was found to improve eye fatigue and dry eye in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2020;112(2):334–342. The formula included chrysanthemum among other botanicals, making specific attribution to chrysanthemum alone uncertain.

Evidence strength: Traditional use well-documented; some human trial data for combination botanical formulas; standalone chrysanthemum RCTs for eye health are not established in the literature.

5.7 Antimicrobial Activity

Chrysanthemum extract exhibits strong antibacterial properties against Streptococcus mutans and other bacteria, and is expected to become a candidate drug for the treatment of postoperative sore throat.

Phytochemical studies reveal that these botanicals contain diverse bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenylpropanoids, which exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, among other effects. Essential oils and phenolic acids act as antimicrobial agents by interfering with the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins by microbes and by disrupting their cell membranes.

Evidence strength: Largely in vitro; no human clinical trials. The 2025 Frontiers in Pharmacology review systematically examined both C. morifolium and C. indicum for anti-infective properties but identified the evidence base as preclinical.

5.8 Anticancer Properties

Antitumor activity of a C. morifolium flower extract has been reported using an MTT assay. It was found that proanthocyanidins extracted from C. morifolium flowers could inhibit the proliferation of esophageal cancer (Eca-109 cells), cervical cancer (HeLa cells), and mouse ascites hepatomas (H22 cells).

Chrysanthemum reversed multidrug resistance in human breast cancer cells via inhibition of P-glycoprotein activity. It induced apoptosis in various tumor cells in preclinical studies.

Early research suggests that taking a combination of chrysanthemum, licorice, and Panax pseudoginseng (Hua-sheng-ping) might reverse the development of precancerous stomach sores in some people. This is a preliminary combination product study.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only for anticancer applications; no human RCTs. Results in cell lines and animal models are not yet translatable to clinical use.

5.9 Hepatoprotection

A polyphenol-rich C. morifolium extract inhibited hyperlipidemic fatty liver in mice through the PPAR-alpha-mediated pathway. Flavonoids in C. morifolium inhibit PLA2, modulate glycerophospholipid and sphingomyelin metabolic pathways, and delay the pathology of acute liver injury in preclinical models.

Evidence strength: Animal and in vitro data only; no human clinical evidence confirmed in the literature reviewed.

5.10 Sleep and Sedation

Chrysanthemum morifolium has long been utilized in traditional medicine for its antioxidant and sedative properties, yet its potential in sleep regulation and neuroprotection against oxidative stress remains underexplored. A study investigated the antioxidant and sleep-enhancing effects of C. morifolium extract (CE) in HT22 hippocampal neuronal cells and animal models, focusing on its bioactive component, luteolin-7-glucoside and the underlying molecular mechanisms. In pentobarbital-induced sleep models, CE increased sleep duration by up to 1.41-fold compared to controls, with luteolin-7-glucoside showing similar efficacy.

Evidence strength: Animal model data published in 2025 (PMC12872240); no human clinical trials on sleep outcomes identified.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Chrysanthemum

• Cardiovascular system: Blood pressure modulation, lipid lowering, anti-atherosclerotic properties (preclinical evidence; limited human data)
• Ocular system: Traditional use for eye strain, dry eyes, and redness; some human combination-formula trial data
• Nervous system: Neuroprotection against oxidative injury; sedative/hypnotic activity via benzodiazepine receptor binding in preclinical models
• Immune and inflammatory systems: Immunomodulation, cytokine suppression, potential in atopic dermatitis (network pharmacology analysis)
• Metabolic system: Antidiabetic activity; modulation of lipid metabolism; anti-obesity effects in preclinical models
• Hepatic system: Hepatoprotection against fatty liver and acute injury in animal models
• Respiratory system: Traditional use for colds and fever; anti-asthmatic properties attributed to terpenoids in preclinical data
• Dermatological: Emerging studies suggest that chrysanthemum may contribute to alleviating skin inflammation and atopic dermatitis.
• Antimicrobial defense: Broad-spectrum activity in vitro against bacteria and fungi

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Dosage information from the published literature and traditional usage is variable and preparation-dependent. The following reflects information reported in the available sources, not clinical recommendations.

7.1 Traditional and Habitual Intake

People usually add 25–50 g of chrysanthemum indicum flower (CIF) to 250–500 mL of water, so many studies use water extract of CIF with concentrations in the range of 0.1–0.2 g/mL. The lowest concentration used in one study was 0.1 g/mL, which was in line with people's habitual intake.

7.2 Reported Study Dosages

Clinical studies have used varying amounts, with common ranges in the literature including: dried flower infusion (tea) at 3–5 g daily typically divided into 2–3 doses; standardized extract (containing 1.5% flavonoids) at 300–600 mg daily; tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) at 2–4 mL three times daily; and for topical applications, preparations containing 2–5% chrysanthemum extract.

Chrysanthemum extract is possibly safe when used for up to 12 weeks.

Early research suggests that taking a specific product containing Chinese chrysanthemum and chromium (jiangtangkang) by mouth three times daily for 6 months might lower blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes.

In an animal model study, three doses of CIF (7, 14, and 28 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) were tested as intervention against food-induced systemic low-grade inflammation (FSLI).

There isn't enough reliable information to know what an appropriate dose of chrysanthemum might be.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

8.1 General Safety Profile

Chrysanthemum extract is possibly safe when used for up to 12 weeks, but there isn't enough reliable information to know what the potential side effects might be. As chrysanthemum morifolium has been eaten since ancient times, the extract from this functional food is likely to be safe in clinical application.

8.2 Allergic Contact Dermatitis

The main clinical variant is allergic contact dermatitis: itchy eczema appears on the skin after direct contact with flowers, leaves, stems, plant sap, or plant dust. DermNet specifically notes that chrysanthemums are one of the most common causes of occupational dermatitis from plants of the Asteraceae family, especially among gardeners and florists.

The main substances associated with contact allergies to chrysanthemums and other plants in the Asteraceae family are sesquiterpene lactones. These are plant chemicals that can act as haptens: they bind to skin proteins, become visible to the immune system, and trigger a delayed T-cell response.

Patch tests have shown a positive reaction (++) to flowers and leaves of chrysanthemum after 48 and 72 hours per International Contact Dermatitis Research Group criteria. The results of the photopatch test were inconclusive.

8.3 Cross-Reactivity (Asteraceae Family)

Chrysanthemum is a member of the Asteraceae/Compositae family of plants and may cause an allergic reaction in people sensitive to other plants from this family. Other members of this family include ragweed, marigolds, daisies, and many others.

Asteraceae plants may also cause contact allergic dermatitis: echinacea, daisies, chrysanthemum, chamomile, tansy, dandelion, feverfew, and sunflowers have all been linked with contact allergy in gardeners and florists.

Pollen from Asteraceae plants is an important cause of allergic rhinitis (hay fever) and asthma. The pollen from chrysanthemum and sunflower cause symptoms in some people who are exposed to heavy concentrations, such as flower growers.

8.4 Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

There isn't enough reliable information to know if chrysanthemum is safe to use when pregnant or breastfeeding. Natural pyrethrins present in chrysanthemum induce oxidative stress and DNA damage; high-dose flavonoids can act as pro-oxidants and endocrine disruptors, and readily cross the placenta, raising fetal concerns. However, direct evidence in mammalian embryos, pregnancy pharmacokinetics, and dose-response data are lacking.

8.5 Immunosuppressed Patients

Patients with allergy to ragweed should avoid this herb. Transplant patients should avoid this botanical, as it may interact with immunosuppressive therapy — an advisory from Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center's integrative medicine resource.

8.6 Potential Drug Interactions

Chrysanthemum reversed multidrug resistance in human breast cancer cells via inhibition of P-glycoprotein activity in preclinical studies, which raises a theoretical concern regarding co-administration with P-glycoprotein substrate drugs.

The synergistic effect of active ingredients such as apigenin and kaempferol in chrysanthemum has the effect of treating diseases such as gout by inhibiting the activity of xanthine oxidase. This mechanism may interact with xanthine oxidase inhibitor drugs such as allopurinol, though no human pharmacokinetic study has confirmed this interaction.

8.7 Overall Evidence Gap

Many proposed benefits (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial) are supported strongly by laboratory and animal research, which helps explain traditional use patterns but does not guarantee clinical outcomes. Further studies, including human clinical trials, are needed to confirm these biological activities and safety profiles.

References

• PMC11434334 — Comparative Analysis of the Chemical Constituents of Chrysanthemum morifolium with Different Drying Processes (PMC, 2024)
• PMC10582400 — Phytochemicals, Therapeutic Benefits and Applications of Chrysanthemum Flower: A Review (PMC, 2023)
• Frontiers in Plant Science — The Genus Chrysanthemum: Phylogeny, Biodiversity, Phytometabolites, and Chemodiversity (2022)
• PMC8161347 — Chemistry and Pharmacological Activity of Sesquiterpenoids from the Chrysanthemum Genus (PMC, 2021)
• ScienceDirect — Chrysanthemum, an Ornamental Genus with Considerable Medicinal Value: A Comprehensive Review (2021)
• ScienceDirect — Chrysanthemum morifolium as a Traditional Herb: A Review of Historical Development, Classification, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Application (2024)
• ScienceDirect — Recent Advance in Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower: Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Industrial Applications (2026)
• Scientific Reports — Phytoconstituent Analysis, Bioactivity, and Safety Evaluation of Various Colors of Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower Extracts (2025)
• Medicinal Plant Research — Medical Wonders of Chrysanthemum morifolium: Fusion of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Modern Science (2024)
• Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center — Chrysanthemum (Integrative Medicine Herb Database)
• Taylor & Francis — Chrysanthemum morifolium (Knowledge and References)
• PMC9866508 — Analysis of Chemical Constituents of Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract and Its Effect on Postprandial Lipid Metabolism in Healthy Adults (PMC, 2023)
• PMC10005712 — Water Extract of Chrysanthemum indicum L. Flower Inhibits Capsaicin-Induced Systemic Low-Grade Inflammation by Modulating Gut Microbiota and Short-Chain Fatty Acids (PMC, 2023)
• PMC8833354 — Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract Ameliorates Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity by Decreasing Apoptosis (PMC, 2022)
• PMC8859431 — Chemical Antioxidant Quality Markers of Chrysanthemum morifolium Using a Spectrum-Effect Approach (PMC, 2022)
• PMC12872240 — Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract Protects HT22 Cells from Oxidative Stress and Enhances Sleep via GABAergic Modulation (PMC, 2025)
• PMC11963160 — Exploring the Antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Immunomodulatory Properties of Chrysanthemum morifolium and Chrysanthemum indicum (Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2025)
• PMC12692186 — Elucidating the Mechanisms of Chrysanthemum Action on Atopic Dermatitis via Network Pharmacology and Machine Learning (PMC, 2025)
• PMC11717388 — A Case of Allergic Contact Dermatitis Due to Chrysanthemum After Guselkumab Therapy for Palmoplantar Pustulosis (PMC, 2025)
• Health Science Reports — Allergic Potential of Medicinal Plants from the Asteraceae Family (Wiley, 2025)
• Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) — Adverse Reactions to Complementary and Alternative Medicines
• ScienceDirect — Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Reduces the Oxidized LDL-Induced Expression of ICAM-1 and E-Selectin in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (2010)
• Food Science and Biotechnology — Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Flavonoids in Korean Chrysanthemum Species via Suppression of iNOS and COX-2 (2015)
• PMC12300569 — Comparative Analysis of Anti-Inflammatory Flavones in Chrysanthemum indicum Capitula Using Primary Cultured Rat Hepatocytes (PMC, 2025)
• Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology — The Role of Chrysanthemum Phytochemicals in Neural Tube Development: A Narrative Review (2026)
• ScienceDirect — A Review on Medicinal Profile of Chrysanthemum indicum: Network Analysis (2025)
• ScienceDirect — Chrysanthemum: A Promising Source of Bioactive Components and Their Applications (2026)
• RxList/Natural Medicines — Chrysanthemum: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose & Precautions
• WebMD Natural Medicines — Chrysanthemum: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews
• Applied Ecology and Environmental Research — Shahrajabian et al.: A Review of Chrysanthemum, the Eastern Queen in Traditional Chinese Medicine
• PubMed — Chemical Constituents from Flowers of Chrysanthemum indicum (Zhong Yao Cai, 2008)
• Wiley — Induction of NRF2-Mediated Gene Expression by Dietary Phytochemical Flavones Apigenin and Luteolin (2015)