Centaurium erythraea

Centaurium erythraea (Common Centaury): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

1.1 Scientific Names and Synonyms

Centaurium erythraea Rafn is a species of flowering plant in the gentian family (Gentianaceae) known by the names common centaury and European centaury. Accepted synonyms include Erythraea centaurium Persoon, Centaurium umbellatum Gilbert, and Centaurium minus Moench. The notation "s.l." (sensu latiore = in the broader sense) after the botanical name indicates that the species is a multiform collective species, and regulatory documents and pharmacopoeias frequently append this suffix when referring to the drug. The plant is also known by the common names minor centaury, lesser centaury, centaury herb, common centaury, feverwort, filwort, bitter herb, red centaury, Christ's ladder, and centaury gentian.

The genus name Centaurium comes from the Greek kentaureion (belonging to the centaurs), and the species epithet erythraea (from the Latin erythraeus = reddish) refers to the color of the pink flowers. The former genus name Erythraea is similarly derived from the Greek erythros, relating to the red color of the flowers.

1.2 Plant Description and Morphology

This is an upright biennial herb which reaches half a meter in height. It grows from a small basal rosette and bolts a leafy, upright stem which may branch. The triangular leaves are arranged oppositely on the stem and the upright inflorescences emerge from the stem and grow parallel to it, sometimes tangling with the foliage. Each inflorescence may contain many flowers. The petite flower is pinkish-lavender and about a centimeter across, flat-faced with yellow anthers. The fruit is a cylindrical capsule. It flowers from June until September.

Smooth, erect stems (10–50 cm) arise from a basal rosette of smooth, oval, greyish-green leaves and bear opposite, narrow, smooth stem leaves with three veins. Small, tubular, pink flowers with five petals occur in summer in a branched inflorescence at the top of the stem. Many small seeds form in cylindrical capsules and the anthers coil after dehiscence.

1.3 Taxonomy and Classification

Common centaury (C. erythraea Rafn) is one of the most important pharmacological species from the Gentianaceae family. The genus Centaurium consists of approximately 40 species (annuals or biennials). Other species, such as C. majus Zeltner and C. suffruticosum (Grieseb.) Ronn, are also medicinally used.

1.4 Geographic Distribution

Common centaury grows in almost all of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. It is native to much of Europe, the Mediterranean region, and western Asia (including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran), and is widely naturalised in other parts of the world, including North America and Australia. Centaurium species are distributed mainly in the Mediterranean region, and in North and Central America; a few species also occur in South America and temperate Asia and Australia.

1.5 Pharmacopoeial and Regulatory Identity

The plant is known as the plant drug "Centaurii herba," which is a common ingredient of many commercial formulations recommended for the treatment of digestive problems. The whole herb (Centaurii herba) is used medicinally. The dried preparation is easily identified by red particles (dried flower) among the pale green leaf matter. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) formally describes the drug as Centaurii herba, and the plant is the subject of a European Union herbal monograph maintained by the European Medicines Agency (EMA).

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ancient and Classical Traditions

Hippocrates described centaurium under the Greek name kentareion, and according to legend, Chiron (founder of medicine) used centaury to heal a wound inflicted by a poisoned arrow. Centaury has been used traditionally since the 10th century, possibly even by Saxon herbalists, for treating fever, hence the common name "feverwort." It was described as early as the first century AD by Dioscorides.

2.2 European Folk Medicine

Common centaury is a herbal species with a long use in traditional medicine due to its digestive, stomachic, tonic, depurative, sedative, and antipyretic properties. According to Hungarian folk medicine, it is a plant "with a thousand medicinal properties," used traditionally as a digestive, stomachic, tonic, depurative, sedative, and antipyretic herb. It is also one of the potential drugs to treat asthma, eczema, jaundice, fever, intestinal parasites, rheumatism, hypertension, gastrointestinal muscle spasms, and edema, and to stimulate the activity of the liver and gallbladder.

Historically, centaury has been used as an herbal medicine to kill worms, to treat dropsy, as a sedative, to treat snakebite and other wounds, and topically for freckles and spots. It is reputed to be an aromatic bitter and tonic for treating gastrointestinal complaints such as bloating, dyspepsia, and flatulence, and anorexia. Centaury is said to act on the liver and kidneys to "purify the blood" and for jaundice.

The use of Centaurium erythraea Rafn s.l. herba has a long tradition in Europe, mainly in mild dyspeptic/gastrointestinal disorders and in temporary loss of appetite. The European centaury is mainly prepared as a tisane for use in traditional medicine.

2.3 Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Traditions

The plant has ethnopharmacological relevance in many countries, including Morocco, Algeria, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and countries of the Balkan Peninsula. It is used in folk medicine to treat various illnesses and also as an antiapoplectic, anticoagulant, anticholagogue, antipneumonic, hematocathartic, and hypotensive agent.

2.4 Balkan and Southeastern European Traditions

Ethnobotanical studies in the Pirot District (southeastern Serbia) provide evidence on the traditional use of common centaury. Based on surveys among the rural population, the above-ground parts of C. erythraea were usually used internally for stomach complaints, appetite improvement, immunity, diabetes, burns, wounds, high temperature, and as a sedative or aphrodisiac; and externally against burns, wounds, and rheumatic pain. It was also used internally against gastric bacteria, blood purification, bronchitis, high blood pressure, jaundice, liver diseases, and urinary tract inflammation, and externally against chest pain and hemorrhoids.

2.5 Traditional Preparations

Centaury preparations are obtained by drying and comminuting (reducing into tiny pieces) or powdering the aerial parts. They are also obtained by using a technique to extract compounds from plant material by dissolving them in a solvent (such as ethanol or water) to form a liquid extract or tincture (an alcoholic extract). In traditional medicine, C. erythraea is used to treat various diseases such as diabetes, fever, rhinitis, stomach ailments, urinary tract infections, dyspeptic complaints, loss of appetite, and hemorrhoids, and as a diuretic.

2.6 Historical Regulatory and Pharmacopoeial Recognition

Competent authorities have found sufficient information to justify at least 30 years of medicinal use including at least 15 years of EU use for the herbal substance Centaurii herba in the cut, powdered, liquid extract, tincture, and soft extract forms. The plant has been described in multiple historical pharmacopoeias across Europe, and in China, a secoiridoid present in this plant was approved as a new drug to treat acute jaundice and chronic active hepatitis.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Secoiridoid Glycosides (Primary Bitter Compounds)

The main class of secondary metabolites of all Centaurium species is bitter secoiridoid glucosides. Secoiridoid glucosides are the characteristic bitter-tasting constituents, principally (approximately 75%) swertiamarin, with smaller amounts of gentiopicroside (gentiopicrin) and sweroside (bitterness value ca. 12,000) and centapicrin (bitterness value ca. 4,000,000). Other iridoids include bitter m-hydroxybenzoyl esters of sweroside, de-acetylcentapicrin, centauroside (a dimeric secoiridoid), secologanin, 6'-m-hydroxybenzoyl-loganin, dihydrocornin (a cyclopentane iridoid), and gentioflavoside.

The pharmacological activity is attributed to the whole extract; however, emphasis is put on the group of secoiridoid glycosides ("bitters") with main components swertiamarin, gentiopicroside, and centapicrin. Chromatographic identification of the compounds from decoctions indicates the presence of five secoiridoids, six xanthones, and one flavonoid (quercetin). The major compound is gentiopicroside, a secoiridoid structure compound characteristic of the Gentianaceae family to which C. erythraea belongs.

3.2 Xanthones

Centaurium species contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds, among them secoiridoid glycosides (gentiopicrin, swertiamarin, and sweroside) and xanthones (eustomin, demethyleustomin, decussatin, methylbellidifolin, and mangiferin). Studies using HPLC methods separated the iridoid loganic acid, four secoiridoids, and 29 xanthones from this and related species; phytochemical investigation of C. erythraea herb yielded 25 xanthones and three secoiridoids, the structure of which was elucidated by spectroscopic means (NMR, MS, and UV). A novel xanthone, 1,3,8-trihydroxy-5,6-dimethoxyxanthone, was isolated from C. erythraea for the first time in one such investigation.

3.3 Secoiridoid Alkaloids

Secoiridoid alkaloids present in C. erythraea include gentianine and gentianidin, as well as six methoxylated xanthones.

3.4 Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids

Phenolic compounds such as esters of hydroxycinnamic acids, namely p-coumaric, ferulic, and sinapic acids, were also identified in C. erythraea extracts. The species is reported to contain considerable amounts of polyphenolic compounds, namely xanthones and phenolic acids as the main constituents.

3.5 Terpenoids and Essential Oil Constituents

The headspace volatile fraction of C. erythraea contains numerous monoterpene hydrocarbons; the major ones identified include terpinene-4-ol, menthone, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, and limonene. Oxygenated monoterpenes are present in both the headspace and the oil. Similarities with Serbian C. erythraea oil have been noted, including neophytadiene (1.4%), thymol (2.6%), carvacrol (6.1%), and hexadecanoic acid (5.7%). Ursolic acid, maslinic acid, secologanin, secologanin dimethyl acetal, centauroside A, erythraeaxanthone I, erythraeaxanthone II, and demethyleustomin have been isolated from aerial parts of C. erythraea and identified using spectroscopic methods, including NMR and mass spectrometry.

3.6 Stability of Constituents

The stability of key analytes has been tested by subjecting samples to light, moisture, and different temperatures. After six months of storage, decomposition of gentiopicroside and sweroside was observed, indicating that storage conditions affect the chemical integrity of the drug.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Bitter Tonic / Gastric Secretagogue Effect

Although the mechanism of action is still unclear, it is assumed that the bitter constituents stimulate digestive secretions. The secoiridoid glycosides, particularly swertiamarin and gentiopicroside, interact with bitter taste receptors on the tongue and gastrointestinal mucosa, triggering reflex increases in saliva, gastric acid, and bile production. The pharmacological activity is attributed to the whole extract; however, emphasis is put on the group of secoiridoid glycosides ("bitters") with main components swertiamarin, gentiopicroside, and centapicrin.

4.2 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Following bioactivities previously ascribed to C. erythraea, researchers have studied its antioxidant capacity and the ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR). Significant antioxidant activities were observed, following three assays: free radical DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) reduction; lipoperoxidation; and NO radical scavenging capacity. Antioxidant properties are also evidenced by C. erythraea plants, namely acting as superoxide radical scavenger or as inhibitor of xanthine oxidase.

4.3 Enzyme Inhibition

Researchers have studied the ability of C. erythraea decoction to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR). Significant antioxidant activities were observed. Molecular docking studies indicated that xanthones are better AChE inhibitors than gentiopicroside, while gentiopicroside exhibits better inhibition of HMGR.

4.4 Vascular / Vasodilatory Mechanisms

A methanolic fraction (MFCE) of C. erythraea reduced perfusion pressure in isolated rat mesenteric vascular bed (63.3 ± 3.9%; n = 4) and almost completely abrogated angiotensin II-induced cardiac fibroblast proliferation. Reduction of perfusion pressure was endothelium-dependent and occurred in parallel with an increase in nitric oxide (NO) release. These effects were inhibited by muscarinic receptor antagonists, by L-NAME (a NO synthase inhibitor), and by ODQ (a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor). Experiments revealed that effects required the involvement of K⁺ channels, being inhibited by tetraethylammonium (TEA; a Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels inhibitor) and by glibenclamide (an ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels inhibitor). In conclusion, extracts from C. erythraea, particularly the compounds present in the MFCE, induce endothelium-dependent vasodilation and prevent fibroblast proliferation induced by angiotensin II, which can account for the claimed antihypertensive effects.

4.5 Anti-diabetic Mechanisms

Due to its reduction of alpha-amylase activity and enteric absorption of glucose, C. erythraea has shown considerable anti-hyperglycemic action. For the antidiabetic tests, essential oil from C. erythraea (CEEO) displayed IC₅₀ values of 168.62 μg/mL for α-amylase and 87.18 μg/mL for α-glucosidase inhibition.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Digestive Health and Dyspepsia

Evidence level: Regulatory traditional-use status; no qualifying human clinical trials published.

As adequate clinical studies are lacking, well-established use for this herb is not justified. The medicinal use has been documented continuously in well-known handbooks. Therefore, Centaurii herba fulfils the requirements of Directive 2004/24/EC as a basis for classification as a traditional herbal medicinal product. The use of Centaurii herba-containing preparations for the relief of mild dyspeptic/gastrointestinal disorders and lack of appetite is considered plausible on the basis of bibliographic and pharmacological data.

Due to the lack of research from clinical trials, the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) approves herbal medicine products containing centaury based on its traditional and long-standing use. The approval is based on previous evidence from pharmacopoeias, plausible effectiveness, and evidence of safe use for over 30 years. On this basis, HMPC approves centaury to be used for mild indigestion, stomach and gut disorders, and temporary loss of appetite.

ESCOP lists centaury for dyspeptic complaints and loss of appetite. Traditionally, centaury has been used to treat dyspepsia, abdominal colic, flatulence, bloating, and other gastrointestinal complaints, and to treat temporary loss of appetite. It was also used as a liver and kidney tonic. There are no published randomised controlled trials specifically evaluating C. erythraea as a monotherapy for these indications. The evidence base is entirely pre-clinical and traditional-use documentation.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic Effects

Evidence level: Animal and in vitro only; no human clinical evidence.

Pharmacological effects of centaury include anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity, as demonstrated in several animal studies. Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antidiabetic, diuretic, and hepatoprotective effects have been reported in in vivo (animal) studies, as have gastroprotective, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antibacterial, cytotoxic, antimutagenic, and insecticidal effects in preclinical work. These findings have not been replicated in human trials and cannot be directly extrapolated to clinical efficacy.

5.3 Antidiabetic Activity

Evidence level: Animal and in vitro studies only; no human clinical trials.

Traditional use of C. erythraea in treating diabetes is supported by studies indicating antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of CE extract or its constituents. Animal studies revealed that CE extract lowered hyperglycemia and improved serum lipid status in streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic rats. C. erythraea demonstrated significant antidiabetic properties by enhancing insulin sensitivity and lowering blood glucose levels in these preclinical models, making it a promising but as-yet unvalidated natural treatment for diabetes. In comparison to aqueous extracts, decocted extracts had higher levels of polyphenols, total tannins, and anthocyanins, as well as more effective antioxidant capacities. Due to its reduction of alpha-amylase activity and enteric absorption of glucose, C. erythraea has shown considerable anti-hyperglycemic action in preclinical models. No human trials on antidiabetic outcomes have been published.

5.4 Gastroprotective Effects

Evidence level: Animal studies; no human clinical evidence.

One animal study determined the antiulcer and antioxidant activities of C. erythraea (small centaury) in an aspirin (ASA)-induced acute gastric ulcer model. The gastroprotective effect of a 50% aqueous-ethanolic small centaury extract was investigated in rats at a dose of ASA 200 mg/kg body weight. Twenty-one Sprague-Dawley albino rats were divided into three groups of seven; at the end of the 4-hour drug administration, ulcer index, oxidant, and antioxidant levels were measured and compared between groups. The gastroprotective effect observed with C. erythraea aqueous-ethanol extracts could, in part, be explained by the plant's antioxidant activity.

5.5 Hepatoprotective Effects

Evidence level: Animal studies; no human clinical evidence.

A hepatoprotective activity of a methanol extract of the leaves of C. erythraea was evaluated against acetaminophen-induced liver toxicity in rats. An oral dose of 300 mg/kg/day for 6 days or a single dose of 900 mg/kg for 1 day exhibited a significant protective effect by lowering serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT), glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The hepatoprotective activity was also observed by histopathological examination of liver sections. These were animal studies and no human clinical confirmation has been published.

5.6 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: In vitro studies; no human clinical trials.

The antioxidant activity of an aqueous extract of centaury dried flowering tops has been demonstrated in vitro, via effectively scavenging reactive oxygen species. Significant antioxidant activities were observed, following three assays: free radical DPPH reduction; lipoperoxidation; and NO radical scavenging capacity. All antioxidant evidence is from in vitro systems; the clinical relevance for human health is unknown.

5.7 Antimicrobial Effects

Evidence level: In vitro and laboratory studies only; no human clinical evidence.

One study isolated the two secoiridoid glycosides swertiamarin and sweroside from the aerial parts of C. erythraea. The isolated constituents demonstrated antibacterial activity against several bacterial strains, free radical scavenging activities, and low general toxicity. The main findings from essential oil studies revealed that CEEO, menthol, and tricosane impeded the proliferation of Gram-positive bacteria more efficiently than that of Gram-negative bacteria. Certain xanthones from C. erythraea may possess antimutagenic actions against several strains of Salmonella typhimurium. All antimicrobial evidence is from laboratory studies; no human clinical antimicrobial trials exist.

5.8 Cardiovascular / Antihypertensive Effects

Evidence level: Animal and isolated tissue studies only; no human clinical evidence.

Centaurium erythraea is a plant used in traditional medicine for several cardiovascular disorders, namely hypertension, but there is no scientific evidence able to provide a molecular basis for its claimed antihypertensive effects from human studies. The most robust preclinical mechanistic data come from isolated rat tissue experiments showing endothelium-dependent vasodilation, as described in Section 4.4.

5.9 Cholesterol Reduction

Evidence level: Preliminary in vitro enzyme inhibition data only.

Centaurium erythraea is a medicinal plant with several applications, among which gastrointestinal motility, gastric damage, as well as reduction of total blood cholesterol can be mentioned, based primarily on ethno-medicinal tradition and preclinical enzyme inhibition data for HMG-CoA reductase. No human cholesterol-lowering trials have been published.

5.10 Urinary Tract Applications (as a Combination Product)

Under the traditional herbal registration (THR) scheme in some EU member states, centaury is part of a combination product used to "help flushing of the urinary tract and to assist in minor urinary complaints associated with cystitis in women only." This use is based on traditional registration, not clinical trial evidence for the herb in isolation.

5.11 Cytotoxic / Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: In vitro cell-line studies only; very preliminary.

The cytotoxic potency of undescribed xanthone compounds from C. erythraea was evaluated by the XTT assay against human breast cancer MCF-7, MDA-MB-453, and mouse fibroblast 3T3-L1 cell lines. These xanthone compounds are also known for their antiproliferative effect and their ability to inhibit several molecular targets in tumor cells, including kinases, cyclooxygenases, and DNA polymerases. All cytotoxic evidence is from cell culture experiments; no in vivo animal or human oncology studies have been published for this plant.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on traditional use, animal studies, and in vitro data, C. erythraea is associated with the following body systems and health areas:

• Gastrointestinal system: Centaurium species exhibit digestive, spasmolytic, antiflatulent, and gastroprotective activities.
• Hepatobiliary system: Centaury has also been used traditionally for liver and gallbladder complaints and gastritis.
• Cardiovascular system: Centaurium erythraea is a plant used in traditional medicine for several cardiovascular disorders, namely hypertension.
• Endocrine / metabolic system: C. erythraea demonstrated significant antidiabetic properties by enhancing insulin sensitivity and lowering blood glucose levels in preclinical models.
• Immune and antipyretic: Traditional use as a fever remedy across European and Mediterranean cultures.
• Urinary system: Used in combination formulations for urinary tract complaints in the EU traditional herbal registration framework.
• Skin: Antioxidants in skin formulations help protect against oxidative stress by neutralizing reactive oxygen species, reducing free radical-induced cellular damage and supporting skin integrity. C. erythraea exhibits potent antioxidant activity attributable to its high concentration of polyphenolic compounds.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

7.1 Approved and Documented Forms

C. erythraea s.l. herba, as a powdered herbal drug, herbal tea, water extract, or hydroalcoholic extract, for the relief of mild dyspeptic/gastrointestinal disorders/complaints and lack of appetite is well documented in a number of handbooks. Sufficient information was found for the cut herbal substance, powdered herbal substance, liquid extract, tincture, and soft extract forms to justify at least 30 years of medicinal use including at least 15 years within the EU.

7.2 Dosages Reported in Sources

• German Commission E monograph: The German Commission E monograph calls for 1 to 2 g of herb daily, while other uses for dyspepsia specify as much as 6 g.
• Herbal tea: A daily dose of 6 g of the drug is referenced, prepared by pouring 150 ml of boiling water over 2 to 3 g of finely chopped herb.
• Timing of administration: The infusion should be consumed half an hour before meals to stimulate appetite and after meals for digestive complaints.
• Animal study reference doses (hepatoprotection): A methanol extract of C. erythraea leaves was evaluated at an oral dose of 300 mg/kg/day for 6 days or a single dose of 900 mg/kg for 1 day in rat hepatotoxicity models. These are preclinical doses and cannot be extrapolated to human use.
• Clinical guidance: There is no recent published clinical evidence to guide dosage of centaury.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Overall Safety Profile

Specific data on pharmacokinetics and interactions are not available. Non-clinical information on the safety of C. erythraea preparations is scarce; the available toxicity data do not suggest any safety concern in relation to the oral medicinal use. There are no known reports of toxicity.

Neither the chemical composition nor the long-term widespread use in the European Community suggest that there is a (potential) risk associated with the use of centaury extract. Yet, due to the lack of data on acute and chronic toxicity, repeated dose toxicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive and developmental toxicity, a list entry for Centaurii herba cannot be recommended for unsupervised use based on data alone.

8.2 Adverse Effects

No toxic effects have been documented. After intake of high dosages, stomach disturbances have been noted. Contraindications have not yet been formally identified.

8.3 Hepatotoxicity: Case Report

One case report has been found reporting a possible relation between acute and cytolytic hepatitis and the intake of a herbal combination preparation containing Coutarea latiflora 50 mg and Centaurium erythraea. This single case report involved a multi-ingredient combination product and cannot be directly attributed to C. erythraea alone.

8.4 Pregnancy and Lactation

As there is no information on reproductive and developmental toxicity, the use during pregnancy is not established. Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking.

8.5 Interactions

No drug–herb interactions are well documented for centaury. Specific data on pharmacokinetics and interactions are not available. Given its demonstrated inhibitory effects on HMG-CoA reductase and acetylcholinesterase in vitro, theoretical interactions with statins and cholinesterase-inhibiting drugs could be considered, but no clinical interaction studies have been performed and such interactions are not documented in the regulatory literature.

8.6 Limitations of the Evidence Base

Clinical studies could not be found. Therefore, only the use as a traditional herbal medicinal product is recommended; well-established use is not justified. Further investigation using diverse in vivo pharmacological assays is strongly recommended to validate the results of its traditional use. Toxicological tests and pharmacokinetic studies are also required to validate the safety and efficacy of C. erythraea and its bioactive contents.

References

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