Banyan

Banyan (Ficus benghalensis L.): A Comprehensive Reference

Identity and Botanical Classification

Banyan goes by the botanical name Ficus benghalensis and belongs to the mulberry family Moraceae. According to the International Plant Names Index (IPNI), it is called "Bar" in Nepali, "Banyan" in Hindi, and "East Indian fig tree" or "Indian Banyan" in English. Taxonomically, it is classified under Order Rosales, Family Moraceae, Genus Ficus, and Species benghalensis.

The herb Ficus benghalensis belongs to the plant family Moraceae, the order Rosales, the Genus Ficus, and the subgenus Urostigma. Within Ayurvedic nomenclature, it is called "Vata" in Ayurveda. It is known in Hindi as Bad, Bargad, and Baragad; in Kannada as Alada mara, Aala, and Vatavruksha; in Bengali as Bat or Bat Briksh; in Gujarati as Vad; in Malayalam as Peroal; and in Tamil as Ala.

The name "Banyan" is derived from the term "Banias," or "merchants," who lounged under the trees to discuss business plans and policies, while the species name "benghalensis" refers to the plant's aboriginal origins in Bengal.

Morphology and Geographic Distribution

Banyan is a type of strangling fig native to India and Pakistan. Known in Hindu mythology as "the wish-fulfilling tree," banyans represent eternal life. Native to India and Pakistan, banyan begins life growing on other trees and eventually envelops them completely. Aerial roots hang down from the branches and these eventually become trunks. This circle of trunks deriving from one original tree can reach an enormous size — 200 metres in diameter and 30 metres in height — and their welcome shade has made them important gathering places.

Vata (Banyan tree) is a big tree distributed all over India in the temperate climate, growing to a height of 15–20 meters. Aerial roots are found hanging from the tree which, on touching the ground, give support to the branches. The tree bark is thick and whitish colored. The leaves are thick and oval, 4–6 inches long. The fruits are red, round, about 0.5 to 0.75 inch in diameter, and spongy.

Plant Parts Used Medicinally and Common Preparations

The fruit of the banyan tree, its leaves, as well as its bark contain medicinal properties and are used for various purposes. The latex is also very widely used. All the plant organs, including leaves, stem bark, root, latex, and fruits, have been investigated for their potential bioactivities.

Common preparation forms described in traditional and research contexts include:

• Bark decoction: a decoction of the bark is prepared and taken at doses of 50 to 80 ml per traditional Ayurvedic practice.
• Bark/leaf powder: the powdered form is typically dosed at 1 to 3 g.
• Latex (milky juice): the milky latex is used at 5 to 8 drops.
• Aqueous extract (for research): oral administration of aqueous bark extract has been studied in streptozotocin-induced diabetic animal models at doses such as 500 mg/kg/day.
• Hydroalcoholic extract: used in modern pharmacological investigations of the bark and leaves.
• Ethyl acetate extract: particularly studied from aerial roots in toxicity and pharmacological assessments.
• Food use: Banyan fruits can be eaten fresh or dried, and the young leaves and shoots are also eaten as famine food.

Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani Systems

Ancient medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and Homeopathy were using this tree extensively as medicine for various diseases. Regarding traditional uses, various plant parts of F. benghalensis were found to be used in Ayurveda, Siddha, and other traditional medicine systems in South Asia. The stem bark was used mostly for the treatment of diabetes, diarrhea, and dysentery.

In the traditional system of medicine, various plant parts of Ficus benghalensis L. — such as stem bark, aerial roots, underground roots, vegetative buds, leaves, fruits, and latex — have been used in various nervous disorders including seizure, insomnia, and anxiety.

The Ayurvedic pharmacopeia characterizes the plant through its classical properties: Rasa (Taste) — Kashaya (Astringent); Guna (Qualities) — Guru (Heavy for digestion), Ruksha (Dry in nature); Vipaka — Katu (Undergoes pungent taste after digestion); Veerya (Potency) — Sheeta (Cold); Karma (Actions) — Kaphpitta shamaka (reduces vitiated Kapha and Pitta dosha).

Traditional Ayurvedic indications include: Grahi (absorbent, useful in diarrhea and IBS), Yonidoshahara (cleanses cervix and uterus), Varnya (improves skin tone), and Stambhana (blocks the channel, useful in diarrhea and bleeding disorders).

Specific Traditional Preparations by Body Part Used

Different parts of the tree have been found to possess distinct traditional roles: leaves are indicated for ulcers, aerial roots for gonorrhea, seeds and fruits as cooling tonics, and roots are given for obstinate vomiting. Infusion of bark is considered a tonic and astringent, and is also used in diarrhea, dysentery, and diabetes.

The latex is used for the treatment of wounds, burns, and rheumatism. Latex of Vata is also applied locally in dental caries, conjunctivitis, and skin diseases.

Classical Ayurvedic physician Charaka prescribed aqueous extract of leaf-buds mixed with sugar and honey to check diarrhea. For hemorrhages and bleeding piles, milk processed with the aerial roots or leaf-buds was prescribed. The decoction of leaf-buds or aerial roots with honey was used to check vomiting and relieve thirst. Infusion of the bark was used for seminal weakness, nervous disorders, and burning sensation of the skin.

The milky juice (latex) was also regarded in traditional Ayurveda as aphrodisiac, tonic, and vulnerary, and was considered useful in piles, diseases of the nose, and gonorrhea.

Ficus benghalensis L. is also recorded in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India as a recognized medicinal plant, reflecting its long-standing institutional recognition within the subcontinent's codified herbal tradition.

Cultural and Symbolic Significance

The tree is mentioned in several mythological texts for its curative traits and is also seen outside many homes and temples where it is worshipped regularly. Recognized in Hindu folklore as "the wish-fulfilling tree," banyans symbolize eternal life.

Key Phytochemical Constituents and Active Compounds

Chemical analysis has shown that Ficus species contain a wide range of phytoconstituents, including phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, glycosides, sugar, protein, essential and volatile oils, and steroids. The plant is reported to be abundant with fatty acids and their derivatives, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, sterols, tannins, saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, sugars and sugar derivatives, proteins and amino acids, and a number of miscellaneous compounds responsible for various pharmacological activities.

By Plant Part

• Stem bark: Leucoanthocyanidin derivatives and triterpenes are primarily reported from the stem bark. Stem bark extracts contain various tannins, specifically leucopelargonidin glycosides.
• Leaves: Triterpene derivatives and phenolic compounds including flavonoids are reported from the leaves. Leaves contain triterpene, friedelin, and beta-sitosterol.
• Bark (glucosides): The bark of the tree contains a glucoside, Bengalinoside (also spelled Bengalenoside), and flavonoid glycosides leucocyanidin and leucopelargonidin.
• Heartwood: Heartwood contains esters of alpha-tatraxasterol and liglic acid.
• Aerial roots: The aerial root contains phytosterols.
• Novel glycosides (recent findings): Recent studies have identified unique glycosides in F. benghalensis. Bengalenoside is a phenolic glycoside from leaves that shows hypoglycemic (antidiabetic) activity.

Key Identified Flavonoids and Terpenoids

Phytochemical investigations reveal a rich diversity of bioactive constituents, including flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, and leucopelargonidin), terpenoids (lupeol, α- and β-amyrin acetates, and ursolic acid), and sterols (β-sitosterol).

Some of the distinct compounds present in Ficus species plant parts include bengalenoside, leucodelphinidin, leucoanthocyanin, leucocyanidin, and derivatives. The presence of flavonoids and terpenoids is potentially responsible for their pharmacological activities.

Phytochemical analysis of various extracts of plant parts has also revealed the presence of amino acids, vitamins, phenols, terpenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids, alkaloids, anthraquinones, as well as cardiac glycosides.

Tocopherols (vitamin E) were detected — at 3.9% of leaf extract — contributing antioxidant protection.

Notable Bioactive Molecules and Mechanisms

Carpachromene, a stilbene-like compound from leaves, has demonstrated potent antiproliferative effects: it induces G2/M cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in leukemia cells via topoisomerase I inhibition.

Another newly reported compound, a fatty-acid glucoside from leaves, strongly inhibits LPS-induced inflammation in macrophages by blocking COX enzymes and binding EGFR to suppress PI3K/Akt signaling.

Based on in silico and in vitro analyses, analogs of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, apigenin, and ursolic acid have been identified as lead candidate inhibitors of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and PTP1B enzymes, respectively.

Pharmacological Evidence by Area of Use

1. Blood Glucose Regulation and Antidiabetic Activity

This is the most extensively studied area of F. benghalensis pharmacology. The bark of the plant is used in Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of diabetes.

In vitro evidence: An in vitro study analyzing carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme inhibition activity using F. benghalensis bark powder extract demonstrated potential activity; the aqueous extract of the bark powder measured IC50 values of 77 and 141 µg/mL against α-glucosidase and sucrose enzymes, respectively. In another study, the flavonoid-rich fraction of bark extract possessed the highest α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, along with maximum efficacy for glucose uptake in rat hemidiaphragm.

Animal (in vivo) evidence: In an in vivo study using ethanolic leaf extract (200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight) from F. benghalensis on alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats, the extract reportedly reduced triglycerides, cholesterol, and glucose levels. In another study, oral administration of F. benghalensis bark extract was reported to lower blood glucose in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats through the stimulation of insulin secretion from beta cells of Islets of Langerhans. Oral administration of aqueous bark extract to diabetic rats significantly decreased blood glucose levels at 5 hours and restored levels of serum electrolytes, glycolytic enzymes, and hepatic cytochrome P-450 dependent enzyme systems; it also decreased the formation of liver and kidney lipid peroxides at the end of 12 weeks.

A study on the aqueous extract of aerial roots examined variable doses in normal, sub-diabetic, and mild-diabetic rat models, comparing results with the reference drug Glipizide. The dose of 300 mg/kg showed the maximum fall of 43.8 and 40.7% in blood glucose level during fasting blood glucose and glucose tolerance test studies, respectively.

Based on network and experimental pharmacology findings, hydroalcoholic extract of F. benghalensis bark may act as an antidiabetic agent by enhancing glycolysis, decreasing gluconeogenesis, promoting glucose uptake, enhancing insulin secretion, and maintaining pancreatic β-cell mass via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, while also downregulating the function of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B.

Evidence strength: Antidiabetic activity is supported by multiple in vitro and in vivo (animal) studies, including mechanistic investigations. Although both in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activity evaluations have been carried out for antidiabetic activity, the plant has not been well explored regarding bioactive constituents and pharmacological and toxicological activities. No robust randomized controlled human clinical trials specifically on Ficus benghalensis were identified. Evidence remains preclinical.

2. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

F. benghalensis and F. religiosa have shown significant anti-inflammatory effects in studied models.

In vitro/animal evidence: Research has accentuated the anti-thrombotic action of F. benghalensis based on properties including anti-coagulant, platelet-antiaggregatory, anti-atherogenic, hypotensive, hypolipidemic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. An in vitro study demonstrated that Ficus benghalensis hydro-alcoholic bark extract showed dose-dependent reduction in xanthine oxidase activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO) levels, and pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF) levels.

Analgesic properties have also been examined: In the tail-flick test, a significant increase in the time elapsed until animals responded to thermal stimuli was observed with all three tested doses of F. bengalensis bark extract. In the early phase of the formalin test, a significant decrease in licking response was observed with F. bengalensis at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg. In the late phase, the duration was significantly reduced with all three tested doses.

Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects are supported by in vitro and animal models at various tested doses. Human clinical data are absent. Evidence is preliminary.

3. Antioxidant Activity

Panchvalkala, an Ayurvedic preparation, has F. benghalensis bark as one of its components. A study on the preparation and its component herbs individually showed significant antiradical activity with good superoxide scavenging potential ranging from 41.55 to 73.56 µg.

The hydroalcoholic bark extract also enhanced antioxidant enzyme levels, specifically catalase and superoxide dismutase, in liver homogenate in animal studies. The methanolic extract of F. benghalensis has been identified as a good source of antioxidant compounds and may be useful in the field of therapeutics.

Evidence strength: Antioxidant activity is well established in multiple in vitro assays and some in vivo animal studies. No human clinical trials have been conducted for this endpoint specifically.

4. Antimicrobial Activity

F. benghalensis has shown antimicrobial efficacy against bacterial and fungal pathogens. The plant is rich in saponins, tannins, and anthraquinones, which are common in many Ficus species. Stem bark extracts contain various tannins, including leucopelargonidin glycosides. Together, these compounds reinforce the reported antimicrobial, antioxidant, and wound-healing effects of F. benghalensis.

Evidence strength: Antimicrobial effects are based on in vitro studies. No human trials are available. Evidence is early-stage and in vitro.

5. Wound Healing

The latex of F. benghalensis is used traditionally for the treatment of wounds and burns. Murti et al. (2011) investigated the healing activity of F. bengalensis in albino rats and demonstrated that the healing process in excision, incision, and dead space wounds was accelerated with the extract.

Evidence strength: Wound healing has been studied in animal models with positive results, but clinical human evidence is lacking. Evidence is preliminary/animal only.

6. Neuropharmacological Activity (Memory, Anxiety, Seizure)

Various plant parts of Ficus benghalensis have been used in traditional medicine for various nervous disorders including seizure, insomnia, and anxiety.

Animal evidence: A study performed in mice examined effects on various neuropharmacological parameters: passive-avoidance (memory), open-field (anxiety), pentobarbital-induced sleep potentiation (sleep), rota-rod (muscle coordination), pentylenetetrazol-induced and maximal electroshock seizure tests were performed. Aqueous root extracts (Soxhlet method) of Ficus benghalensis were tested at 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg with negative and positive controls.

A rat study using a scopolamine model of amnesia (Sprague Dawley rats; F. benghalensis doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg) found that administration led to significantly improved memory retention when evaluated through passive avoidance, Y-maze, and Morris water maze tests. When tested by open field and elevated plus maze tests, F. benghalensis demonstrated anxiety-resolving characteristics. Mobility time was increased and immobility time was reduced, suggesting antidepressant properties.

Novel acetylcholinesterase inhibitors have also been isolated from Ficus benghalensis L. leaves, which may provide a mechanistic basis for its memory-related traditional uses.

Evidence strength: Neuropharmacological research is limited to animal models. The available research in this area represents early reports on detailed neuropharmacological aspects of root extracts of Ficus benghalensis. No human data are available. Evidence is preliminary and preclinical only.

7. Anticancer and Antiproliferative Activity

There is emerging evidence of anticancer and antitumor effects attributed to terpenoids and flavonoids that induce apoptosis and inhibit tumor proliferation. The whole plant of Ficus bengalensis is used in studies evaluating anti-cancer and anti-microbial properties.

Carpachromene, a stilbene-like compound from leaves, demonstrated potent antiproliferative effects, specifically inducing G2/M cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in leukemia cells via topoisomerase I inhibition.

Evidence strength: Anticancer activities are demonstrated solely in in vitro cell-line and in silico studies. No clinical or animal tumor model data specific to F. benghalensis were identified in current clinical databases. This evidence is the weakest of the areas reviewed.

8. Cardiovascular and Antithrombotic Activity

Research has evaluated the antithrombotic action of F. benghalensis based on its anti-coagulant, platelet-antiaggregatory, anti-atherogenic, hypotensive, hypolipidemic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties.

The plant is a rich source of organic compounds such as phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and steroids, and the various studies show that these phytochemical constituents exhibit wide-ranging anti-thrombotic actions.

Evidence strength: Cardiovascular effects have been proposed based on constituent-level mechanisms and animal data. No human cardiovascular clinical trials were identified.

9. Immunomodulatory Activity

Ficus benghalensis displays diverse pharmacological activities including anthelmintic, analgesic, and immunomodulatory effects. Immunomodulatory activity has been studied primarily in vitro and in laboratory animal systems as part of broader pharmacological evaluations, but no dedicated human immunomodulatory trials were identified in the sources reviewed.

10. Gastrointestinal Effects (Antidiarrheal, Antiulcer)

Ficus benghalensis exhibits significant anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheal effects that are pivotal for its use in traditional medicine. The banyan tree bark is traditionally used in the Indian medical system; the bark and the leaf buds of the tree are useful in arresting secretion or bleeding. The fruit exercises a soothing effect on the skin and mucous membranes, alleviates swelling and pain, and serves as a mild purgative, while also being nutritious.

Evidence strength: Gastrointestinal effects are supported by extensive traditional use records and some in vitro and animal pharmacological studies. No human clinical trials for gastrointestinal endpoints were identified.

Body Systems Associated with Banyan

Existing studies on the pharmacological functions have revealed that Ficus species possess a broad range of biological properties, including antioxidants, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antitumor and antiproliferative, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, antihelminthic, hepatoprotective, wound healing, anticoagulant, immunomodulatory, antistress, and mosquitocidal effects. Based on the body of research evidence, the following body systems are associated with banyan:

• Metabolic/Endocrine System: Blood glucose regulation, antidiabetic activity, lipid modulation.
• Digestive System: Antidiarrheal, antiulcer, bowel astringency, treatment of dysentery and vomiting.
• Nervous System: Memory support, anxiolytic effects, potential anticonvulsant, antidepressant (all preclinical).
• Cardiovascular/Hematological System: Anticoagulant, antithrombotic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant cardioprotection.
• Immune System: Immunomodulatory and antistress properties.
• Integumentary System (Skin): Wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial applications.
• Reproductive System: Traditional use in leucorrhea, menorrhagia, and uterine conditions.
• Musculoskeletal System: Traditional use in rheumatism and pain.

Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following doses are reported directly from cited sources and are presented for informational accuracy only:

• Powder (traditional Ayurvedic): 1 to 3 g; Decoction: 50 to 80 ml; Milky latex: 5 to 8 drops.
• Bark decoction for vaginal diseases: 50–70 ml.
• Cold infusion of tender buds for excessive sweating: 40–50 ml.
• Aqueous bark extract, streptozotocin diabetic rat model: 500 mg/kg/day exhibited significant antidiabetic activity.
• Aqueous aerial root extract, rat antidiabetic model: 300 mg/kg showed the maximum fall of 43.8% in blood glucose level in normal rats.
• Ethanolic leaf extract, alloxan-induced diabetic rat model: 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight.
• Aqueous bark extract, antinociceptive animal study: 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg per oral.
• Methanolic bark extract, neuropharmacological rat study: 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg with positive and negative controls given to Sprague Dawley rats.
• Aqueous root extract, neuropharmacological mouse study: 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg (Soxhlet method).

No standardized human clinical dosages have been established through controlled trials for Ficus benghalensis.

Safety Considerations

Acute Toxicity Data

F. benghalensis aerial roots exhibited no signs of toxicity and were considered safe up to 5000 mg/kg in an acute toxicity study. The ethyl acetate extract of Ficus benghalensis aerial roots was found to have a "no observed adverse effect limit (NOAEL)" of 5000 mg/kg body weight/day according to the results of an acute oral toxicity investigation. No mortality was noted in any rat in the treatment group, and all provided Ficus extract samples resulted in normal behavioral, motor, and neural functions. All parameters checked remained either unchanged or statistically insignificant compared to the control group.

In the neuropharmacological mouse study, preliminary experiments demonstrated that high doses of 2000 mg/kg were tolerated without any acute signs of toxicity or mortality. Therefore, one-tenth of this dose (200 mg/kg) was considered the highest evaluation dose for pharmacological studies.

While F. benghalensis has been studied extensively, only a few spaced-out studies have been conducted concerning its toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Safety studies show that the aqueous and ethanolic extracts were well tolerated by test subjects at the therapeutic dose.

Limitations of Safety Data

To prove its safety when used for an extended period, additional toxicity assessments such as sub-acute, chronic, or genotoxic studies employing repeated doses of Ficus aerial root extract should be carried out. The safety and efficacy of the extract require additional in vitro and in vivo evaluations, particularly concerning traditional use in treating reproductive health issues. Comprehensive investigation into the toxicity and genotoxicity of the plant is critical to ensuring safe application in medicinal practices.

Theoretical Safety Concerns

Plants may contain metabolites with synergistic or antagonistic nature, and some may cause serious intoxication or hypersensitivity reactions and, in some cases, may result in anaphylactic shock. This general consideration applies to F. benghalensis preparations, particularly as standardized formulations are not widely available.

Safety profiles of Ficus spp. are overall favorable, with no serious adverse effects reported in traditional medicinal use. However, it is important to note that the absence of reported adverse effects in traditional use records does not constitute a formal safety evaluation under modern pharmacological standards. Sub-chronic, chronic, genotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity studies remain largely absent from the published literature for this species.

Potential for Drug Interactions

Given the demonstrated antidiabetic mechanisms — including α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition, enhancement of insulin secretion, and glucose uptake promotion — the extract's mechanisms including enhancement of glycolysis, promotion of glucose uptake, and enhancement of insulin secretion via the PI3K/Akt pathway raise the theoretical possibility of additive hypoglycemic effects when used alongside antidiabetic drugs. This has not been formally studied in human trials.

The documented anticoagulant and platelet-antiaggregatory properties of the plant also raise theoretical concerns regarding concurrent use with anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications, though again no direct interaction studies in humans have been published.

Current Research Gaps and Status

The existing review literature highlights the need for further pharmacological exploration of Ficus benghalensis for modern medicine. Although widely used in traditional medicines, it has not been well explored regarding bioactive constituents, and pharmacological and toxicological activities. Most pharmacological evidence derives from in vitro experiments and animal models. Robust, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled human clinical trials for any of the proposed therapeutic indications are absent from the published literature. Novel molecules such as carpachromene and recently characterized fatty-acid glucosides illustrate the plant's unique chemistry and may serve as leads for drug development.

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