Artichoke

Artichoke (Cynara scolymus / Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Artichoke belongs to the genus Cynara, a small genus within the Asteraceae family comprising eight species and four subspecies. The globe artichoke is classified botanically as Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus; the cultivated or leafy thistle is Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis; and the wild thistle is Cynara cardunculus L. var. sylvestris. The globe artichoke, formerly and still commonly known as Cynara scolymus L., is a perennial herbaceous crop native to the Mediterranean region, where it has been cultivated for thousands of years before spreading worldwide.

Botanically, Cynara scolymus is a perennial member of the Asteraceae family with large, extending, deeply lobed, silvery-green leaves and many purple flowers which sit atop the receptacle. Artichoke is a member of the Asteraceae, or daisy, family. It was the occupying Arabs in Spain who gave the artichoke the name al-khurshūf, from which its modern European names are derived.

In the supplement and herbal medicine context, the plant part most commonly used is the leaf. Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus) is a plant native to the Mediterranean area; the leaf, stem, and root are used to make extracts, which are used as medicine. For phytomedicinal purposes, standardized artichoke leaf extract (ALE) is the dominant commercial form.

Common Forms and Preparations

• Standardized supplements of artichoke extract with stated minimum amounts of active ingredients are available in tablets, capsules, gels, and liquids.
• Across the Mediterranean, artichoke leaf extract was traditionally brewed into teas or tinctures to address bloating, nausea, and poor appetite.
• Modern supplement manufacturing often standardizes the extract to a specific percentage of key bioactive markers, such as 5% cynarin, ensuring consistent potency and efficacy across batches.
• There may be wide variation in the amount of phenolic compounds (particularly caffeoylquinic acids) across some products.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Artichoke has been known since the 4th century B.C. as a food and traditional remedy. This plant has been appreciated by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, who used it both as a food and as medicine. Images of artichokes have been found on ancient Egyptian papyri and altars.

It is thought to be one of the oldest used medicinal plants, as it is depicted in ancient Egyptian drawings and used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to aid in digestion. The medicinal use of artichoke extends beyond digestion: ancient Greek physicians, such as Dioscorides, recommended artichoke for liver health and to stimulate bile production. Similarly, Roman records indicate its use in managing various digestive complaints.

Artichoke (Cynara scolymus) has a long history of use in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures for digestive support, liver health, and as an appetite stimulant. Historically, it was used as a folk remedy for jaundice, liver disorders, and kidney health.

The artichoke has been cultivated since antiquity for food and medicinal purposes, notably by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but it was under Catherine de Medici (16th century) that it was reintroduced and gained popularity in France.

All plants of the thistle family have been traditionally used for stimulating the digestion and treating rheumatism in various ways, not only in Europe but also by Native Americans and in Asia. Chinese medicine sees the artichoke as a valuable tonic for the liver and gall-bladder, relieving congestion throughout the system, eliminating toxins and enriching the blood. In the Chinese medical model, muscle and joint pain is seen as liver and gall-bladder related, so the artichoke is also used for treating these.

The European Medicines Agency (EMA) monograph cites the traditional use of artichoke for the symptomatic relief of digestive disorders, such as dyspepsia with a sensation of fullness, bloating and flatulence, and to promote digestive elimination functions.

As a traditional medicine, artichoke has been used primarily for enhancing liver function. Among traditional healers, artichoke has been used to treat chronic liver and gallbladder diseases, jaundice, hepatitis, arteriosclerosis, and symptoms of diabetes.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

The leaves of the artichoke contain a high content of pharmacologically active ingredients, including three essential groups consisting of caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs), flavonoids, and bitter substances. Within these groups are constituents such as caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, cynarin (1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid), luteolin, and the glycosides scolymoside and cynaroside.

The key active constituents of artichoke leaf extract are caffeoylquinic acids (including cynarin and chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (including luteolin and derivatives, such as glucosides), and bitters (sesquiterpene lactones, including cynaropicrin).

Bitter sesquiterpene principles, such as grosheimin, cynaratriol, and cynaropicrin, have been reported, as well as dehydrocynaropicrin, grosulfeimin, and related guaianolides. Flavonoids (0.1% to 1%), including flavone glycosides and rutin, are present. The flavonoid glycosides apigenin, luteolin, cynaroside, scolymoside, cosmoside, quercetin, isorhamnetin, maritimein, and others have also been reported. Volatile oils of artichoke include beta-selinene and caryophyllene as major sesquiterpenes, eugenol, phenylacetaldehyde, and decanal.

It is important to note that the inedible parts of the artichoke (e.g., leaves or stems) are also abundant in biologically active compounds. For example, the leaves are a rich source of Si, Fe, Na, K, Ca, Cu, and Mg, inulin, ascorbic acid, folate, and various phenolic compounds. Artichoke leaves are the richest source of luteolin of all its parts. Moreover, the concentration of the phenolic compound cynarin increases as the plant grows (from 0.01 to 0.05% dry matter).

The stems and leaves of the artichoke contain large amounts of sesquiterpenes, including cinnaratiol and cynararopicrin, which are believed to have a very intense bitter taste. Artichoke seeds, which consist of 24% lipid, 21% protein, and 17% fiber per mass of dry matter, are also valuable sources of various compounds. The seeds also contain large amounts of sterols, including β-sitosterol, campestrol, and 5-stigmasterol.

Mechanisms of Action

Choleretic and Bile-Stimulating Activity

Cynarin, a caffeoylquinic acid derivative, is well-researched for its choleretic and cholagogic effects, meaning it stimulates bile production in the liver and promotes its flow from the gallbladder. This mechanism is vital for fat digestion and the efficient elimination of toxins and cholesterol. It is believed that cynarin, the most crucial active compound of the artichoke extract, is responsible for the cholagogue and choleretic properties of the plant.

After administration of 1.92 grams of standardized artichoke extract directly into the duodenum in a controlled trial involving a small sample of healthy volunteers, liver bile flow increased significantly.

Cholesterol Synthesis Inhibition

The cholesterol-lowering properties of ALE are thought to operate through a reduction in de novo cholesterol synthesis via the inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, an increase in cholesterol elimination in bile secretions, and an inhibition of LDL oxidation.

Artichoke extract acts by inducing an indirect inhibition of the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, reducing the effects caused by direct inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase during long-term treatment. Artichoke extracts effectively blocked insulin-dependent stimulation of HMG-CoA reductase without affecting insulin in general.

Artichoke leaf extract exerts lipid-lowering activity by the inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase and acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase (elicited by artichoke flavonoids), in addition to increased faecal excretion of bile salts. The inhibition of non-saponifiable neutral lipid biosynthesis from 14C-acetate appears to be attributed to the effects of chlorogenic acid, luteolin, and cynaroside.

Antioxidant and Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

The hepatocyte antioxidant system can be modulated by artichoke components, the main ones possibly being caffeic acid and its derivatives, and luteolin. These substances have the potential to suppress the TLR4 signaling cascade, which activates the NF-κB pathway. In the nucleus, activated NF-κB stimulates various pro-inflammatory cytokines that damage the cell and its membrane. Through cell membrane injury, ALT and AST enzymes leak into the blood. The hepatoprotective effects attributed to artichoke components corroborate the observed decreases in ALT and AST concentrations.

Studies have shown the inhibitory effects of artichoke extract on HMG-CoA reductase and phosphatidate phosphohydrolase in the cholesterol and triglyceride biosynthesis pathways, respectively. Some reports show that artichoke extract reduces oxidative stress by reducing reactive oxygen species production and lipid peroxidation.

Artichoke, at 0.25 ng/mL, appears to inhibit the HMG-CoA reductase enzyme by approximately 30% (with atorvastatin as active control reducing activity by 50% at this concentration).

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Dyslipidemia and Cholesterol Management

This is among the most extensively studied areas for artichoke supplementation, with multiple randomized controlled trials and at least two published meta-analyses.

Key Meta-Analysis (2017): Meta-analysis of data from 9 trials including 702 subjects suggested a significant decrease in plasma concentrations of total cholesterol. No significant alteration in plasma HDL-C concentrations was observed. A significant association between the LDL-lowering effect of artichoke and baseline LDL-C concentrations was found, and supplementation with artichoke extract was associated with a significant reduction in both total and LDL-C, and triglycerides, suggesting that supplementation may be synergistic with lipid-lowering therapy in patients with hyperlipidemia.

More Recent Meta-Analysis (2021): This meta-analysis included 14 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with a total of 960 human participants, all examining the impact of artichoke extract on cholesterol and lipid profiles. The findings showed that individuals taking artichoke extract experienced a reduction in total cholesterol, LDL ("bad") cholesterol, and blood triglyceride levels. However, HDL ("good") cholesterol levels were not significantly affected by use of the extract. Because only RCTs were included in the meta-analysis, it is reasonable to assume that the observed relationship is causal, rather than a mere correlation between artichoke extract use and improvements in lipid profile.

Notable Individual RCT (Englisch et al., 2000): In a double-blind placebo-controlled study of 143 individuals with elevated cholesterol, artichoke leaf extract significantly improved cholesterol readings. Total cholesterol fell by 18.5% as compared to 8.6% in the placebo group; LDL cholesterol fell by 23% vs. 6%; and the LDL to HDL ratio decreased by 20% vs. 7%.

RCT with Modest Effect (Walker et al., 2001): 131 adults were screened for total plasma cholesterol in the range 6.0–8.0 mmol/L, with 75 suitable volunteers randomized onto the trial. Volunteers consumed 1280 mg of a standardized ALE, or matched placebo, daily for 12 weeks. Plasma total cholesterol decreased in the treatment group by an average of 4.2% and increased in the control group by an average of 1.9%, the difference between groups being statistically significant (p=0.025). No significant differences between groups were observed for LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, or triglyceride levels.

Evidence Assessment: The evidence for modest cholesterol-lowering effects (primarily total cholesterol and LDL) is supported by multiple RCTs and two meta-analyses. Effect sizes are generally modest and results across individual trials are not entirely consistent. The mechanism — primarily indirect HMG-CoA reductase inhibition and increased biliary cholesterol elimination — is plausible but differs from pharmaceutical statins in potency.

4.2 Functional Dyspepsia and Digestive Disorders

The choleretic effect of artichoke has led to its popular use in Europe for the treatment of mild indigestion — particularly following a meal high in fat.

Key RCT (Holtmann et al., 2003): This study aimed to assess the efficacy of artichoke leaf extract (ALE) in the treatment of patients with functional dyspepsia (FD). In a double-blind, randomized controlled trial, 247 patients with functional dyspepsia were recruited and treated with either a commercial ALE preparation (2 × 320 mg plant extract three times daily) or a placebo. The primary efficacy variable was the sum score of the patient's weekly rating of the overall change in dyspeptic symptoms, and secondary variables included the scores of each dyspeptic symptom and quality of life (QOL) as assessed by the Nepean Dyspepsia Index (NDI). The ALE preparation tested was significantly better than the placebo in alleviating symptoms and improving the disease-specific quality of life in patients with functional dyspepsia.

Cohort Study (Phytotherapy, N=305): Of 311 patients in the cohort, the data from 305 (98%) were included in the analysis of dyspepsia symptoms. A statistically significant gradual reduction in symptom severity was noted at day 30 and further improvement was observed at day 60. Global clinical response, defined as a 50% reduction in the total scores of all symptoms, was recorded in 38% of patients at 30 days and in 79% at 60 days. However, this was an open-label, uncontrolled cohort study and should be interpreted with caution.

Evidence Assessment: The most rigorous clinical evidence for functional dyspepsia comes from the Holtmann 2003 RCT (n=247). The EMA recognizes the traditional use of artichoke for dyspepsia with fullness, bloating, and flatulence. Overall evidence is positive but based on a limited number of high-quality trials.

4.3 Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

Studies showed that ALE is effective in alleviating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms in individuals with this condition (Bundy et al., 2004; Walker et al., 2001).

Post-Marketing Surveillance Study: Artichoke extract has been shown to reduce symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). In a trial of 208 patients given artichoke extract for 6 months, 26.4% showed a reduction in IBS symptoms.

Subset Analysis (Bundy et al., 2004): IBS symptoms decreased by 26%, and NDI (Nepean Dyspepsia Index) symptoms fell by 41% — indicating improved digestion — and there was a 20% increase in quality of life. This was a subset analysis of a previous dose-ranging trial, which limits the strength of inference.

The results of several studies suggest that artichoke leaf may help decrease gastrointestinal symptoms and improve quality of life in individuals with functional dyspepsia and IBS.

Evidence Assessment: Evidence for IBS is preliminary — primarily from a post-marketing surveillance study and a subset analysis rather than large, purpose-designed RCTs. Larger, well-controlled IBS-specific trials are lacking.

4.4 Liver Health and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Liver Enzymes (2022): Pooled analysis of seven randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggested that artichoke administration has an effect on both alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (Hedges' g, −1.08; 95% CI, −1.76 to −0.40; p = 0.002) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (Hedges' g, −1.02; 95% CI, −1.76 to −0.28; p = 0.007). Greater effects on ALT were detected in trials that lasted ≤8 weeks.

There was evidence of considerable heterogeneity among studies (I² = 92.2%; p < 0.001), which limits the reliability of pooled estimates and points to substantial variation in study populations, doses, and durations.

High-dose and longer-duration intervention with artichoke extract in patients with hepatitis C did not produce a remarkable reduction in serum ALT and AST levels.

Pre-Clinical Liver Data: The results of animal studies have demonstrated that artichoke preparation, owing to its high antioxidative potential, exhibits protective and regenerative effects on the liver. This is supported by the observation of higher GSH levels in the plasma of rats treated with artichoke extract for two weeks before carbon tetrachloride exposure.

A literature review found that artichoke, berberine, chlorella, chicory, green tea, probiotics, phospholipids, schisandra, silymarin, spirulina, and vitamin D caused a decrease in liver enzymes in the context of NAFLD and related conditions.

Evidence Assessment: Pooled human RCT data support a significant reduction in liver enzymes (ALT, AST) with artichoke supplementation, particularly in NAFLD populations. However, high heterogeneity between trials, varying doses and durations, and limited mechanistic clarity in humans mean the evidence is promising but not yet conclusive. Pre-clinical data are more robust.

4.5 Blood Pressure

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2021): Data were gathered from eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comprising adult men and women, generally middle-aged, with either diagnosed hypertension or NAFLD. Participants received artichoke leaf supplementation (dosages varied across trials, typically standardized extracts) or placebo for 8–12 weeks. Results showed no significant effect of artichoke supplementation on systolic blood pressure (SBP) (WMD −0.77 mmHg) or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (WMD −0.11 mmHg) compared with placebo. However, subgroup analysis demonstrated that in hypertensive patients, artichoke supplementation significantly reduced SBP (WMD −3.19 mmHg) and DBP (WMD −2.33 mmHg).

Results indicated artichoke supplementation for 12 weeks led to significantly decreased DBP (WMD: −2.33 mmHg, 95% CI: −2.43 to −2.23), but not when supplementation lasted only 8 weeks.

Evidence Assessment: The overall population-wide blood pressure effect of artichoke supplementation appears non-significant. The subgroup finding of blood pressure reduction in hypertensive patients is hypothesis-generating but requires dedicated RCTs to confirm. Effect sizes, if real, are clinically modest.

4.6 Cardiometabolic and Glycemic Outcomes

Large Meta-Analysis of Cardiometabolic Outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis explored the effect of artichoke on cardiometabolic outcomes including blood glucose, lipid levels, blood pressure, and anthropometrics. A total of 21 high-quality RCTs were included covering 1,372 participants between 20–60 years with conditions including hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome, NAFLD, hypertension, or obesity. The treatment involved artichoke leaf extract or placebo with doses ranging from 50 to 2,700 mg/day and durations between six weeks to six months. Results showed significant improvements in fasting blood sugar (WMD −3.76 mg/dL), fasting insulin (−1.35 mIU/L), and HOMA-IR (−1.00), along with significant reductions in LDL-C (−12.94 mg/dL) and total cholesterol (−19.64 mg/dL).

Several researchers have indicated that artichoke promotes insulin secretion, sensitivity, and plasma glucose reduction in animal models of diabetes. Human evidence is more limited, with glucose effects documented primarily in trials focused on NAFLD and metabolic syndrome rather than in diabetic populations specifically.

4.7 Endothelial and Vascular Function

Compared to controls, the artichoke group exhibited significant improvements in flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and reductions in circulating levels of vascular adhesion molecules, including VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. Similarly, Castellino et al. (2019) administered a nutraceutical supplement containing artichoke extract to individuals with metabolic syndrome over six months and reported a significant improvement in FMD. Both studies additionally reported a significant reduction in carotid intima-media thickness, suggesting that this formulation may have consistent vascular protective effects across different at-risk populations.

Evidence Assessment: Vascular function evidence is promising but derives from a small number of trials, often using combination nutraceutical products containing artichoke alongside other ingredients. Isolating artichoke's specific vascular contribution is difficult from these data.

4.8 Pre-clinical and Mechanistic Evidence (Not Established in Humans)

Artichoke modulates SREBPs in the liver (which are paradoxically elevated in patients with NASH). Activation of the reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) pathway is dependent on the expression of apolipoprotein A1 (Apo-A1), which activates LCAT, enabling cholesterol to be purified from macrophages and other peripheral tissues to the liver. From molecular docking results, chlorogenic acid, contained in artichoke extract, showed a strong capacity to bind to PPARα and LXRα, which are directly implicated in the regulation of Apo-A1 gene expression.

From available evidence, artichoke leaf extracts can represent a valid and promising botanical therapeutic approach for the treatment of neuroinflammation and several pathologies associated with inflammation, including neurodegenerative disorders. However, this conclusion is largely based on pre-clinical and in vitro data, and human clinical trials specifically targeting neuroinflammation or neurodegeneration with artichoke are lacking.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Hepatic/Biliary: Artichoke leaf extracts are known for their beneficial effects on liver function, their choleretic properties, and their ability to promote renal elimination. Artichoke leaves contain active compounds such as cynarin, involved in the secretion of bile salts and thus the digestion of lipids.
• Gastrointestinal: Taking artichoke extract by mouth can reduce symptoms of indigestion, including nausea, vomiting, gas, and stomach pain.
• Cardiovascular/Lipid Metabolism: The consumption of artichoke, especially its leaves and extract, has demonstrated effectiveness in lowering levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood, thereby helping to prevent cardiovascular diseases. This benefit is attributed to the presence of inulin and various acids. Furthermore, artichoke has the capacity to reduce triglyceride levels.
• Metabolic/Glycemic: Artichoke has shown effects on fasting blood glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR in meta-analyses of RCTs, particularly in subjects with metabolic syndrome and NAFLD.
• Antioxidant Defense: The phenols found in artichoke have the ability to modulate cellular antioxidants and several important enzymatic pathways, helping to protect cells against oxidative damage.
• Vascular/Endothelial: Evidence from several trials suggests potential improvement in endothelial function, as measured by FMD and adhesion molecule levels, particularly in subjects with metabolic syndrome.
• Microbiome/Prebiotic: Inulin found in artichoke is researched for its benefits as a prebiotic, which may promote beneficial bacteria found in the gastrointestinal system.

6. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Studies

Artichoke leaf extract has most often been used by adults in doses of 320–640 mg by mouth three times daily.

In the Holtmann et al. (2003) double-blind, randomized controlled trial for functional dyspepsia, 247 patients were treated with a commercial ALE preparation (2 × 320 mg plant extract three times daily) or a placebo.

In the Walker et al. cholesterol RCT, volunteers consumed 1280 mg of a standardized ALE daily for 12 weeks.

The dosage of ALE deemed to be effective in lipid studies ranges from 2 to 3 g/day.

The servings of artichoke leaf extract used in liver enzyme studies ranged from 100 mg/day to 2,700 mg/day with duration ranges between 4 and 12 weeks.

In the large cardiometabolic meta-analysis, doses ranged from 50 to 2,700 mg/day and durations between six weeks to six months.

Because no universally established therapeutic dose has been defined by a regulatory body for artichoke as a supplement, the doses cited above reflect what has been used in clinical studies rather than any official recommended intake.

7. Safety, Adverse Effects, and Drug Interactions

General Tolerability

Artichoke products, particularly in dietary amounts, are generally considered safe. However, clinical data on long-term supplementation remain limited.

Common adverse reactions associated with artichoke supplementation include diarrhea, abdominal spasms, nausea, heartburn, and flatulence. These effects may be related to its influence on bile secretion and digestion.

In a 2009 Cochrane systematic review on artichoke leaf extract for treating hypercholesterolemia, the authors concluded that only mild, transient, and infrequent adverse events have been reported for short-term use of ALE.

Allergy and Cross-Reactivity

People with allergies to plants in the Asteraceae family (including daisies, sunflowers, and marigolds) should be cautious because of potential cross-reactivity (allergic reactions to proteins in similar plants).

Allergic reactions have been reported, particularly in occupational exposure settings, where individuals handling fresh or dried artichoke plants have experienced eczema-like skin reactions.

Authoritative herbal monographs include cautions and contraindications associated with artichoke leaf preparations for individuals with hypersensitivity to the Asteraceae plant family and individuals with hepatobiliary diseases.

Special Populations

Because limited research is available, artichoke extract use during pregnancy and breastfeeding should be avoided.

Drug Interactions

Most drug interactions are theoretical, but this is because safety data are limited.

Statins (Animal Data): In dyslipidemic rats, adding artichoke leaf extract (ALE) to rosuvastatin halved rosuvastatin serum C_max and AUC (755 → 388 ng/mL), indicating reduced exposure and a pharmacokinetic interaction. This could, in theory, blunt statin efficacy in humans. Clinical trials have used artichoke instead of simvastatin rather than together, so human co-administration data are lacking.

Antidiabetic Medications: Artichoke lowers fasting blood sugar and insulin resistance modestly; combined use with metformin in NAFLD patients improved liver markers without reported safety issues. This suggests additive glucose-lowering, so hypoglycemia risk may rise when combined with multiple antidiabetic agents.

Notable Case Report (Colchicine and Polypharmacy): An elderly patient on metformin, gliclazide, enalapril/HCTZ, amlodipine, aspirin, diazepam, and colchicine developed severe myopathy, anemia, and liver injury after drinking approximately 1.5 L/day of artichoke infusion. This case highlights potential risks of consuming very large quantities of artichoke infusion in the context of complex polypharmacy, particularly with colchicine.

Gallbladder Disease Caution

The significant choleretic action of artichoke means it may be contraindicated in individuals with gallbladder obstruction or biliary tract conditions. Authoritative herbal monographs include contraindications associated with artichoke leaf preparations for individuals with hepatobiliary diseases. This is mechanistically grounded — stimulating bile flow in the presence of obstruction could worsen symptoms.

Product Variability

There may be wide variation in the amount of phenolic compounds (particularly caffeoylquinic acids) across some products. This variability complicates the direct translation of study findings to commercial preparations that are not identically standardized.

References

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• An Overview of the Versatility of the Parts of the Globe Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.), Its By-Products and Dietary Supplements — Nutrients (MDPI), 2024
• Exploring the Cardiovascular Potential of Artichoke — A Comprehensive Review — PMC, 2025
• Lipid-lowering Activity of Artichoke Extracts: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — PubMed (Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition), 2017
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• Effects of Artichoke Supplementation on Liver Enzymes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials — PubMed (Clinical Nutrition Research), 2022
• Effects of Artichoke on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — ScienceDirect (Phytotherapy Research), 2021
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