IngredientsThe journey of amber begins as resin, a sticky hydrocarbon secretion produced by various trees, primarily ancient conifers and some flowering plants. Resin serves a protective function, acting as a natural bandage that seals wounds in the tree's bark caused by physical damage or insect boring. This secretion is a complex mixture of non-volatile resin acids and volatile compounds, such as terpenes, which give fresh resin its distinct odor. The resin is believed to have dropped to the forest floor, become embedded into the local sediments, and been compressed by overlying deposits. Over millions of years, a chemical substance known as terpenes, which is found naturally in the resin, breaks down and escapes from the resin, forming amber.
The most well-known source is the Baltic Sea region, yielding succinite, a type of amber roughly 35 to 40 million years old from ancient pine forests. Another significant source is the Dominican Republic, where the amber is typically 15 to 40 million years old and derived from a tropical flowering tree.
Baltic amber has traditionally been attributed to the resin of the extinct pine species Pinus succinifera, a form genus in the Pinaceae family thought to have dominated Eocene forests in the region now encompassing the Baltic Sea area. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses reveal terpenoid compositions, including abietic and pimaric acids, that closely match those of modern Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), supporting this hypothesis as a chemical analog. However, the botanical origin of Baltic amber is still a subject of scientific debate. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and multivariate analyses of chemical profiles suggest a likely origin from trees in the Sciadopityaceae family, closely related to the modern Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata), rather than Pinaceae or Araucariaceae. Researchers speculate that probably more than one tree species was responsible for the Baltic amber deposits.
The constituents of succinites include succinic acid, borneol monoterpenoids, cadinane sesquiterpenoids, isopimarane, pimarane, and abietane-type diterpenoids, with a predominance of dehydroabietic acid. Monoterpanyl succinates and monoterpanyl diterpenoates are also present. Monoterpanyl esters are one notable characteristic of succinite-type ambers. The terpenoid compositions of these ambers indicate Pinaceae as the botanical source. Furthermore, detailed examination suggests that the ambers are derived from resins of Pinus or Picea (Pinaceae).
Succinic acid (butanedioic acid, amber acid), also known as succinate in its anionic form, is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula C4H6O4. It takes its name from the Latin word for amber, succinum, as it was first obtained through the dry distillation of amber. Its synonyms include butanedioic acid, amber acid, Asuccin, dihydrofumaric acid, wormwood acid, Katasuccin, Succinicum acidum, Acidum succinicum, Bernsteinsaure (German), and Kyselina jantarova (Czech).
Succinite is characterised by an amber acid content of between 3% and 8%. This amount of succinic acid is the feature that elevates Baltic amber to its exalted status among fossil resins. Succinic acid is found in small amounts in plants, animals, and fermented products, and is especially concentrated in amber, from which its name is derived. Succinic acid can also be naturally found in broccoli, rhubarb, beets, asparagus, fresh meat extracts, sauerkraut, and cheese.
Amber and its primary constituent succinic acid are encountered in several commercial forms:
The history of Baltic amber dates back to ancient times, with evidence of its use dating back to the Neolithic period (around 4000 BC). It was highly valued by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used it to make jewelry and amulets, and it was also believed to have medicinal properties.
Long before modern science could identify succinic acid, ancient cultures revered amber for its healing and protective powers. The ancient Greeks referred to it as elektron, and believed it had magical properties. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, was among the first to record amber's therapeutic uses as early as 460 BC.
In ancient Rome, amber was used as medicine and as protection against different diseases. Calistratus, a famous physician of those times, wrote that amber protects from madness, that powder of amber mixed with honey cures throat, ear, and eye diseases, and that taken with water it cures stomach illnesses.
The Persians would melt the amber into a liquid to turn it into a syrup to prevent and stop spasms, while the alchemists of the Middle Ages would treat jaundice with the succinic acid properties.
With the isolation of succinic acid from amber in the 16th and 17th centuries, physicians of the time began experimenting with it as a general tonic and stimulant.
The Polish astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543 AD), who studied medicine at Krakow University, wrote his graduate thesis on Baltic amber's potent healing properties.
A tincture made of amber and vodka was thought to increase male sexual potency, and the use of this remedy persisted from at least the Middle Ages well into World War I.
In Russian and Eastern European folk medicine, amber tinctures and compresses were used to strengthen the heart, calm the nerves, and relieve arthritis. In Eastern Europe and Russia, succinic acid (particularly from amber extracts) has been used in folk and medical traditions to support stress reduction, inflammation control, and general vitality.
Russians promote succinic acid in pill form as an important anti-alcohol medicine; a substance that reduces the desire for alcohol. They claim that it quickly eliminates the effects of excessive alcohol consumption.
The use of amber, which contains succinic acid, dates back thousands of years in European and Asian traditional medicine. Baltic amber was worn as jewelry or applied to the skin in the belief that it promoted healing, pain relief, and protection. In particular, amber teething necklaces have been used historically to soothe infants, and amber powder or oil infusions were applied to treat rheumatic pain, respiratory infections, and skin inflammation.
Modern phytochemical research supports the presence of succinic acid, terpenoids, resin acids, and phenolic compounds in amber, which exhibit antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Three types of amber-colored resins with traditional medicinal significance are identified: Kikar Amber (Acacia nilotica), Kamarkas Amber (Butea monosperma), and Pine Amber (Pinus succinifera). All three types of amber resins have traditional healing, detoxifying, and antimicrobial activities. Kikar Amber is a well-known natural material used in herbal medicine for treatment of wounds and digestive concerns, while Kamarkas Amber is well respected in the strength field and women's health.
Succinic acid, also known as butanedioic acid, is a naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid involved in cellular metabolism — particularly in the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), where it plays a vital role in energy production within mitochondria. Succinate has long been recognized as a Krebs cycle intermediate in the mitochondria, where it is oxidized by succinate dehydrogenase, providing electrons to the electron transport chain.
Succinate receptor 1 (SUCNR1), previously named G protein-coupled receptor 91 (GPR91), is a receptor that is activated by succinate, the anionic form of the dicarboxylic acid succinic acid. Several functions attributed to succinate, other than participating in the Krebs cycle, are associated with a G protein-coupled receptor known as GPR91 or SUCNR1, which has succinate as its specific ligand. Upon binding to such receptor, succinate has a hormone-like function acting in various organs and tissues such as blood cells, adipose tissue, liver, heart, retina, and kidneys.
Succinate is a pivotal tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolite but also specifically activates the Gi- and Gq-coupled succinate receptor 1 (SUCNR1). Contradictory roles of succinate and succinate–SUCNR1 signaling include reports about its anti- or pro-inflammatory effects. The link between cellular metabolism and localization-dependent SUCNR1 signaling qualifies as a potential cause for the reported conflicts.
Succinate was initially shown to promote HIF-1α activation via inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase domain (PHD), leading to IL-1β production in response to LPS. Succinate is released into the extracellular space, where it binds to succinate receptor 1 (SUCNR1, also known as GPR91) on target cells, eliciting pro-inflammatory responses in LPS-activated macrophages, dendritic cells, and adipocytes.
Succinate, a Krebs cycle intermediate, increases after dysregulated energy metabolism and can bind to its cognate receptor SUCNR1 to activate downstream signaling pathways. SUCNR1 is highly expressed in the white adipose tissue compartment of mice and regulates adipose mass and glucose homeostasis. Lipolysis measurements revealed that Sucnr1-knockout mice were released from succinate-induced inhibition of lipolysis, demonstrating a function of SUCNR1 in adipose tissue.
The GPCR SUCNR1/GPR91 exerts pro-angiogenic effects upon stimulation with the Krebs cycle metabolite succinate. Through autocrine and paracrine mechanisms, succinate activates SUCNR1, which is associated with beneficial tissue repair and remodeling.
An additional advantage of succinic acid is its ability to modulate the immune response and reduce inflammatory processes through the downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. It also enhances microcirculation and supports neoangiogenesis, contributing to improved tissue oxygenation and regenerative capacity. Owing to these properties and its relatively mild action profile, succinic acid peels are considered suitable even for vascular-prone skin types.
Succinic acid is also a natural chelating agent, helping bind and remove certain metals or toxins from the body.
Amberen, a proprietary combination of salts of succinic and fumaric acids, vitamin E, zinc, calcium, magnesium, L-glycine, and monosodium L-glutamate, is a nonprescriptive and nonhormonal dietary supplement that has been shown to reduce menopausal symptoms.
Raw data were pooled from two identical randomized, multicenter, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, 90-day clinical trials. Women aged 42–60 years with mild to moderate vasomotor and psychosomatic menopausal symptoms were included (114 in the treatment group and 113 in the placebo group). Symptoms were assessed by the Greene Climacteric Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Changes in body mass index, body weight, waist and hip circumferences, and plasma levels of follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, leptin, and apolipoproteins A1 and B were also evaluated.
SBDS use resulted in significant improvements in several endpoints including alleviation of 16 of 21 menopausal symptoms (p ≤ 0.05, Greene Scale) and a decrease in anxiety (p < 0.0001, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) when compared to placebo. Significant reductions were observed in weight, body mass index, and waist and hip circumferences in the supplement cohort. Evaluation of physiological parameters showed a significant increase in serum estradiol levels compared to baseline (p < 0.0001) among users of the supplement. Levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone decreased slightly in both groups, without significant differences between the groups. Leptin levels decreased with statistical significance in the supplement cohort compared to placebo (p = 0.027).
Strength of evidence: A nonhormonal, succinate-based dietary supplement is shown to relieve menopausal symptoms when compared to a placebo regimen in a randomized, double-blinded clinical trial. Important caveats: Dr. Shulman, one of the authors, is a paid consultant for Biogix, Inc. (formerly Lunada Biomedical), the manufacturer, introducing potential conflict of interest. The supplement studied (Amberen) is a multi-ingredient product, not isolated succinic acid, so the specific contribution of succinic acid alone cannot be determined from these trials.
Baltic amber teething necklaces have been popularized as a safe and natural alternative to conventional or pharmacological medicines for the management of teething pain. However, claims made by retailers regarding the efficacy and mechanism of action of these necklaces lack scientific or clinical basis. The claim most closely resembling science is the assertion that succinic acid will leach out of the beads and through the skin of the wearer and carry out anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects.
A peer-reviewed study published in BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Nissen et al., 2019) directly tested this claim. The researchers found no evidence to suggest that the purported active ingredient succinic acid could be released from the beads into human skin. Additionally, they found no evidence to suggest that succinic acid has anti-inflammatory properties under those conditions.
Tests on macrophages showed that succinic acid did not result in a reduction of inflammatory cytokines and could even be toxic at high concentrations.
Strength of evidence: The clinical evidence for amber teething necklaces is definitively negative. No controlled studies have demonstrated efficacy, and the proposed mechanism of transdermal succinic acid absorption has not been validated.
Scientific studies, though still limited, suggest that succinic acid can play a role in supporting skin health. Laboratory and in vitro studies have shown that succinic acid may inhibit the growth of acne-causing bacteria such as Cutibacterium acnes, and can modulate inflammation, which is relevant in conditions like acne and general skin irritation.
Topical and intralesional applications of succinic acid have demonstrated effectiveness in suppressing C. acnes-induced inflammation both in vitro and in vivo. These findings suggest that succinic acid not only modulates the skin's microbiome but also holds promise as a therapeutic agent in acne treatment.
A 2024 open-label clinical study (De Lucas et al., Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology) examined a cream gel containing a biotechnological phytocomplex, niacinamide, and succinic acid. Dysbiosis of the skin microbiota has been identified as a key factor in the development of acne. The study was aimed to evaluate the effect of a facial cream gel containing a biotechnological phytocomplex, niacinamide, and succinic acid on the bacterial diversity of subjects with mild-moderate acne and its clinical benefits due to microbiota changes, in 44 subjects treated for 8 weeks.
A 2026 clinical study compared 2% bio-based succinic acid with 2% salicylic acid. Clinical studies corroborated in vitro findings through trials involving 60 volunteers. Over a 28-day leave-on application period, the efficacy and tolerability of 2% bio-based succinic acid were compared with 2% salicylic acid and a placebo. Clinical assessments focused on comedone reduction and improvement in skin tone. Results demonstrated that succinic acid enhanced skin radiance and reduced comedones. Notably, while using salicylic acid, 35% of participants reported irritation, sensations of tightness, and discomfort.
As a chemical peel, succinic acid represents an innovative alternative to classic hydroxy acids. Its superficial action is based on gentle exfoliation coupled with intensive anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, making it an ideal tool for treating acne-prone, vascular, and reactive skin. Unlike aggressive exfoliating acids, succinic acid promotes the structural renewal of the epidermis without inducing excessive trauma.
Unlike salicylic acid, benzoyl peroxide, and sulfur, succinic acid is not yet recognized by the FDA as an active ingredient that can treat acne.
Strength of evidence: High-quality clinical trials on humans are sparse, and much of the available evidence is preclinical or anecdotal. The available human studies are small, short-term, and often use multi-ingredient formulations, limiting conclusions about succinic acid in isolation.
Succinic acid is thought to enhance cellular respiration, protect against oxidative stress, support detoxification, and improve resilience to physical or mental fatigue. Because of its role in the Krebs cycle, it may also assist in improving metabolic efficiency and mitochondrial function — making it popular in formulas targeting chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, and metabolic disorders.
Strength of evidence: In practice, people often report improved perceived energy or reduced fatigue when using succinate-based formulations, but controlled human data directly linking succinic acid to better physical performance or chronic fatigue remain limited.
The major component in pine amber, succinic acid, is believed to be the main ingredient responsible for the medicinal properties because there is scientific evidence to confirm the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties. Cell-based studies suggest possible protection against oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage, indicating potential neuroprotective properties.
Strength of evidence: Evidence is at the in vitro and cell-culture stage. No controlled human clinical trials have directly investigated amber or isolated succinic acid for neurological conditions.
Essential oil extracted from fossil resin has shown in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum. Clinical validation is still lacking.
Reported dosages in scientific literature and supplement contexts vary considerably by intended use and formulation:
Succinic acid is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and can be used as a flavor enhancer and pH control agent in food at levels not to exceed good manufacturing practice. Succinic acid (E363) is listed in Commission Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 as an authorized food additive and categorized in "Additives other than colours and sweeteners." After studies on oral toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and others, the manufacturer Bioamber concluded that the food-grade product had no adverse effect and was safe under the conditions of its intended uses, which was approved by the FDA in 2015.
When taken by mouth, the succinic acid form of succinate is likely safe when used in the amounts found in foods. There is not enough reliable information to know if succinate or succinic acid are safe or what the side effects might be when used in medicinal amounts.
Although succinic acid E363 is generally regarded as a very safe and effective supplement, there can be some minor side effects. Possible side effects include constipation, darkened stools, diarrhea, mild stomach pain, nausea, and vomiting.
A notable, source-backed interaction concern: Succinic acid has been reported to inhibit the activity of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes. CYP450 enzymes are responsible for the metabolism of a large proportion of pharmaceutical drugs; inhibition of these enzymes could theoretically affect the plasma levels of co-administered medications, though the clinical significance at typical supplement doses has not been well characterized in human studies.
Children should not use teething jewelry, which can lead to choking or strangulation, according to a warning from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Teething necklaces and bracelets are made of amber, wood, marble, or silicone.
The FDA has received reports of death and serious injuries to infants and children, including strangulation and choking, caused by teething jewelry, such as amber teething necklaces. One report involved an 18-month-old child who was strangled to death by his amber teething necklace during a nap.
In addition to choking and strangulation concerns, amber teething necklaces contain succinic acid, which allegedly may be released into an infant's bloodstream in unknown quantities.
Suffocation is the leading cause of death for children under a year old and among the top five causes of death for children between the ages of 1 and 4, and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend that infants wear any jewelry.
Although succinic acid is generally well tolerated when used in cosmetic products, it is always important to remain vigilant about potential side effects. Drawing on broader research on acids used in dermatology, succinic acid could lead to certain adverse effects: some individuals may experience mild skin irritations, such as redness or itching, particularly those with sensitive skin. Similar to other acids, succinic acid can cause dryness or flaking if used excessively, especially in individuals with dry skin.
The succinic acid form of succinate is likely safe when used in the amounts found in foods during pregnancy and breast-feeding. There is not enough reliable information to know if succinate or succinic acid in larger amounts are safe to use when pregnant or breast-feeding. The recommendation is to stay on the safe side and use only food amounts.
Health conditions that Amber may help support.
Amber contains succinic acid, flavonoids, phenolics, and terpenoids with documented antioxidant activity in laboratory assays. Multiple preclinical studies and a 2025 review confirm antioxidant properties of amber tinctures and extracts. A 2022 PMC cell study showed ROS reduction by amber extract.
Amber contains bioactive compounds — including succinic acid, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and diterpenoids — that have demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity in laboratory models. A 2024 review confirmed anti-inflammatory among amber's reported biological activities. Evidence is preclinical; no human trials exist.
A 2022 peer-reviewed PMC study (University of Tsukuba) found that amber extract protects human dopaminergic neuronal cells against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in a PD cell model, acting via ROS reduction and autophagy promotion. Evidence is preclinical only.
TCM texts list coronary heart disease and angina pectoris among amber's indications, attributed to its action of invigorating blood and dispelling stasis. It appears in compound TCM formulas for chest pain. No clinical trials isolate amber as a single agent for angina.
In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), amber (Hu Po) is a classical sedative herb used to calm the mind and settle fright, indicated for anxiety, palpitations, and restlessness. Animal studies suggest succinic acid has CNS-inhibitory effects. No human clinical trials exist for anxiety specifically.
Baltic amber has been used traditionally for joint and muscle pain, including arthritis, attributed to its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties via succinic acid and terpenoid content. It has a history of use in European folk medicine for this purpose. No human clinical trials exist.
Amber has been used for centuries across multiple traditions as a calming agent. In TCM it is classified among 'substances that anchor and calm the spirit,' used for restlessness, excessive dreaming, and agitation. European folk traditions also used amber tinctures and worn beads for relaxation.
Amber has been used across European and Asian traditional medicine as a natural analgesic for chronic pain, including joint and muscle pain. Bioactive terpenes and succinic acid are proposed mediators. Worn amber jewelry for pain relief lacks clinical evidence, but oral/tincture use has a documented folk history.
Amber (Hu Po) is a historically documented TCM treatment for epilepsy and convulsions, especially in children. Animal studies show succinic acid delays chemically induced convulsions in mice. No human clinical trials for epilepsy using amber exist.
Baltic amber necklaces have been used traditionally for teething pain relief in infants, which includes gum inflammation and swelling. Historical records document amber in ancient remedies for throat, ear, and oral complaints. Clinical evidence for amber-specific effects on gum health is absent.
Amber (Hu Po) is a core TCM herb for insomnia, specifically used when sleeplessness is accompanied by palpitations, anxiety, or dream-disturbed sleep. Animal studies show succinic acid prolongs barbiturate-induced sleep in mice. No human RCTs exist for amber alone in insomnia.
TCM texts document amber (Hu Po) for irregular menstruation and amenorrhea due to blood stasis. It enters the Liver channel governing menstruation and acts by moving stagnant blood. No human clinical evidence isolates amber as a single agent for cycle regulation.
TCM sources list urinary calculi (stones) among amber's indications, where it is used to promote urination and resolve urinary obstructions including stones. Traditional formulas combine amber with lithotriptic herbs. No clinical trials evaluate amber specifically for kidney stones.
TCM texts list forgetfulness and poor memory among the classical indications for amber (Hu Po), attributed to its spirit-calming and heart-nourishing actions. No clinical studies have evaluated amber for memory or cognitive outcomes in humans.
Amber (Hu Po) has a documented TCM indication for dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) attributed to blood stasis. The classical formula Hupo San uses amber as a key ingredient for menstrual pain. A clinical study of Modified Hupo San exists for cold-coagulation blood stasis dysmenorrhea, though amber is one of multiple herbs.
Amber (Hu Po) is a classical TCM herb for sleep disturbance, used for dream-disturbed, restless sleep with underlying anxiety or palpitations. Animal studies show sedative effects of succinic acid. No human trials exist for sleep quality specifically.
Amber has a documented traditional role in stress relief in both Baltic folk medicine and TCM. TCM describes it as calming the spirit and settling agitation. European traditions used amber tinctures for stress. No human clinical evidence exists.
Amber (Hu Po) is a classical TCM diuretic, used for difficult or painful urination, urinary retention, and bloody urine. It enters the Bladder channel in TCM and promotes urination to relieve what is called 'lin syndrome.' No human clinical trials specifically for UTI using amber alone exist.
Amber (Hu Po) is used in TCM topically as a powder to promote tissue regeneration and reduce swelling in sores and ulcers. Kikar amber (Acacia nilotica resin) is used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for wounds. Preliminary evidence links amber's flavonoids and terpenoids to wound-healing properties.
Body systems that Amber may help support.
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