Abscesses

Abscesses: A Nutritional and Natural-Health Reference

Definition and Overview

An abscess is a localized collection of pus in a cavity formed from tissues that have been broken down by infectious bacteria. More broadly, an abscess is a buildup of pus surrounded by normal body tissue; in most cases, abscesses are caused by an infectious species of bacteria, and they function to wall off the infection from uninfected tissues. The resulting accumulation — pus — is a complex mixture: thick yellowish pus is formed from the broken-down tissues, the dead bacteria and leukocytes, and the extracellular fluid that has accumulated.

Abscesses can develop virtually anywhere in the body. Abscesses may occur on the skin surface or within the body on such internal organs as the lungs, brain, kidneys, or tonsils. An abscess may form anywhere that bacteria can get through the skin, including insect bites, lacerations, puncture wounds, scrapes, IV injection sites, and other small surface-level injuries. Internal abscesses are also common: an intraabdominal abscess is a localized collection of pus within the peritoneal or retroperitoneal space, often resulting from infections, surgical complications, or trauma.

How Abscesses Present

Most often, an abscess becomes a painful, compressible mass that is red, warm to touch, and tender. As some abscesses progress, they may "point" and come to a head so you can see the material inside and then spontaneously open (rupture). For deep abscesses, local pain and tenderness and systemic symptoms, especially fever, as well as anorexia, weight loss, and fatigue are typical. The predominant manifestation of some abscesses is abnormal organ function (e.g., hemiplegia due to a brain abscess).

Spontaneous resolution without intervention is possible but not reliable: without drainage, an abscess occasionally resolves slowly after proteolytic digestion of the pus produces a thin, sterile fluid that is resorbed into the bloodstream. Incomplete resorption may leave a cystic loculation within a fibrous wall that may become calcified.

Body Systems Involved

The formation of an abscess reflects interplay between the immune system, the circulatory system, and the integumentary or visceral tissues. Organisms or foreign materials destroy the local cells, which results in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, formed by adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures.

In response to an injury, the tissue releases small chemicals in the local area called cytokines — like tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and interleukin-17 — and chemokines, which attract nearby white blood cells which are part of the immune system. Over time, around this pool of pus, a wall of fibrinogen — the same protein that holds together blood clots — starts to harden into a barrier. Occasionally, sheets of fibrin form septations, creating loculations or pockets of pus within the abscess itself.

The interior environment of the abscess itself poses biochemical challenges. The pathophysiology of abscess formation includes the interplay of host immune defenses and the hypoxic, acidotic microenvironment within the abscess, which limits antibiotic efficacy and complicates treatment. The large number of organisms present in an abscess, the presence of antibiotic-inactivating enzymes, the hostility of the anaerobic environment to antimicrobial activity and host defenses, as well as the fibrous capsule surrounding an abscess, contribute to the persistence of infection despite antibiotic therapy and the need for drainage.

Microbiology

Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances. Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though it is much rarer. Intraabdominal abscesses are often polymicrobial, involving bacteria, fungi, and sometimes parasitic organisms, though aseptic collections also occur.

In immunocompromised people, and particularly those with AIDS, Toxoplasma gondii is a frequent cause of widespread abscesses throughout the body, including in the brain. Some types of staphylococcal bacteria produce a toxin called Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL). This kills white blood cells. It causes the body to make more cells to keep fighting the infection, and can lead to repeated skin infections.

Contributing and Associated Factors

Immune Status and Immunosuppression

People with weakened immune systems get certain abscesses more often. Those with certain underlying conditions are all at risk for having more severe abscesses, because the body has a decreased ability to ward off infections. Other risk factors for abscess include exposure to dirty environments, exposure to persons with certain types of skin infections, poor hygiene, and poor circulation.

Diabetes and Glycemic Control

Diabetes is a consistently reported risk factor for abscess formation. A reasonable interpretation of the available evidence is that a patient with poor glycemic control runs an increased risk for perianal abscess, and that if glycemic control (measured as HbA1c) improves, the risk for recurrence decreases. A large population-based cohort study using the Swedish National Diabetes Registry found that high BMI was shown to be an independent risk factor for perianal abscess in patients with diabetes; this relationship had not been described before, although recurrence of perianal abscess had been associated with obesity. In a separate Taiwanese population-based cohort study, after adjusting for diabetes and other comorbidities, overweight (BMI 25–30) and obese (BMI ≥ 30) populations had a higher risk of liver abscess; diabetes, especially poorly controlled disease, and high BMI were associated with higher risk of pyogenic liver abscess. Diabetes, thyroid disease, and chronic gastroenteritis may also have a significant impact on wound healing in patients with perianal abscess.

Obesity and Body Composition

A 2022 Mendelian randomization study — a study design that uses genetic variants as instrumental variables to estimate causal relationships — found that BMI caused an increased risk of impetigo, cutaneous abscess, furuncle and carbuncle, cellulitis, pilonidal cyst, and other local infections of skin and subcutaneous tissues, except for acute lymphadenitis. Univariate MR analysis showed that obesity-related characteristics — waist circumference, hip circumference, body fat percentage, and fat mass (excluding waist-to-hip ratio) — had a causal effect on the increased risk of skin and soft tissue infections, and this positive effect persisted after adjusting for the effect of type 2 diabetes and peripheral vascular disease. A 2026 systematic review of European evidence confirmed that the strongest associations were observed for cellulitis, erysipelas, and abscesses, with a strong dose–response relationship between body mass index and infection risk. Mechanistically, obesity has a negative impact on the function of adipocytes and on the immune surveillance system, and several studies have revealed an association between obesity and impaired wound healing.

Underlying Gastrointestinal Conditions

Certain underlying conditions can increase the risk of developing gastrointestinal abscesses, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, diverticulitis, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and previous gastrointestinal surgery. These conditions can compromise the integrity of the gastrointestinal tract, making it more susceptible to bacterial invasion and abscess formation.

Malnutrition and Nutritional Status

Nutritional status has been formally studied as a predictor of outcomes in abscess-related disease. A prospective cohort study (n=100 elderly patients with brain abscess) published in PMC (2024) found that 48% of older brain abscess patients were at risk of malnutrition according to the Geriatric Nutritional Risk Index (GNRI). These patients had significantly higher post-admission C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, more comorbidities, and higher age-adjusted Charlson Comorbidity Index scores compared to those without nutritional risk. Furthermore, GNRI scores were negatively correlated with CRP levels and comorbidities, and positively correlated with Glasgow Outcome Scale scores; multivariate logistic regression revealed that lower GNRI values were linked to reduced functional recovery outcomes.

More broadly, malnutrition has been related to decreased wound tensile strength and increased infection rates; malnourished patients can develop pressure ulcers, infections, and delayed wound healing that result in chronic nonhealing wounds. Protein malnutrition has been thought to impair collagen synthesis, increasing the risk of wound complications; furthermore, malnutrition impairs immune system function, leading to a higher rate of surgical site infections, which can have serious sequelae such as sepsis.

If a patient has had recurrent abscesses, clinicians are advised to consider nutritional deficiency, especially of iron; immune deficiency; immune suppression by medications such as systemic steroids; diabetes; or poor circulation.

Dietary and lifestyle factors specifically linked to perianal abscess formation include prolonged sitting, constipation, and improper diet, which can heighten the likelihood of anal gland blockage and infections caused by bacteria such as E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus.

The StatPearls resource on intraabdominal abscesses (NIH/NCBI) identifies that the risks associated with surgical procedures are particularly elevated in patients with predisposing factors such as diabetes, immunosuppression, or malnutrition. The same source emphasizes that maintaining optimal nutrition and controlling underlying chronic conditions, such as diabetes or anemia, are essential preventive strategies.

Key Nutrients in the Context of Abscesses

The following nutrients have been studied or discussed in the literature in relation to the immune function, wound healing, and tissue integrity relevant to abscess formation and recovery. Evidence quality is characterized explicitly for each.

Zinc

Role and Mechanistic Evidence

Zinc is an essential trace element (micronutrient) which plays important roles in human physiology. It is a cofactor for many metalloenzymes required for cell membrane repair, cell proliferation, growth, and immune system function. The pathological effects of zinc deficiency include the occurrence of skin lesions, growth retardation, impaired immune function, and compromised wound healing.

Zinc protects against UV radiation, enhances wound healing, contributes to immune and neuropsychiatric functions, and decreases the relative risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease. All body tissues contain zinc; in skin, it is five to six times more concentrated in the epidermis than the dermis.

Over the years, zinc has been shown capable of modulating both innate and adaptive immune functions. Zinc alters immune responses in a multitude of ways ranging from myeloid-derived cells and inflammatory signalling to lymphocyte differentiation and antibody production.

Scientific Evidence

Zinc is known to be important for healthy immune system function, playing an important role in infection and inflammation; in a prospective wound-care cohort study, there was a relationship between zinc deficiency and elevated CRP levels. A review of clinical contexts in the PMC-published analysis on zinc and wound healing documented that the benefits of supplemental zinc have been documented in critically ill patients, severe burn injury, subcutaneous abscess, and minor surgery. This represents low-to-moderate evidence, as the review acknowledges the field has been "only minimally reviewed" with respect to mechanistic detail.

Studies conducted in patients with spinal cord injury found that zinc deficiencies were associated with poor immune function and delayed wound healing; another study on aged-care residents showed that significant zinc deficiencies were associated with increased incidence of pressure injuries.

Vitamin C is essential for collagen synthesis, vitamin A enhances epithelialization, and zinc is necessary for cell mitosis and cell proliferation — all processes relevant to abscess resolution and tissue repair.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Mechanistic Evidence

Vitamin C concentrations in the plasma and leukocytes rapidly decline during infections and stress. Supplementation of vitamin C was found to improve components of the human immune system such as antimicrobial and natural killer cell activities, lymphocyte proliferation, chemotaxis, and delayed-type hypersensitivity.

Scientific Evidence

A large number of randomized controlled intervention trials with intakes of up to 1 g of vitamin C and up to 30 mg of zinc are available. These trials document that adequate intakes of vitamin C and zinc ameliorate symptoms and shorten the duration of respiratory tract infections including the common cold. These findings are for respiratory infections specifically, not abscesses per se. With regard to tissue repair, a PubMed-indexed review of vitamin supplementation in wound healing found that considerable evidence suggests that supplementation of vitamin C together with zinc by an oral nutritional supplement rich in energy, protein, and arginine may be an efficient tool for pressure ulcer healing, and that such supplements providing high doses of vitamin C and zinc in combination with arginine may prevent the development of pressure ulcers. Evidence strength for skin wounds from surgery is characterized as preliminary: for surgical wounds, data from randomized controlled studies are scarce, but results on the use of vitamin C in combination with pantothenic acid are promising.

A prospective cohort study (n=100, wound-care clinic) found that vitamin C deficiency was present in 75% of participants, 50% had vitamin D deficiency, and 38% had zinc deficiency, underscoring the high prevalence of multiple micronutrient deficiencies in wound-prone populations. The direct effect of vitamin C supplementation on abscess healing in human clinical trials has not been established from these data.

Vitamin D

Mechanistic Evidence

It is now clear that vitamin D has important roles in addition to its classic effects on calcium and bone homeostasis. As the vitamin D receptor is expressed on immune cells (B cells, T cells, and antigen-presenting cells), and these immunologic cells are all capable of synthesizing the active vitamin D metabolite, vitamin D has the capability of acting in an autocrine manner in a local immunologic milieu. Vitamin D can modulate the innate and adaptive immune responses. Vitamin D has an important "non-classic" influence on the body's immune system by modulating the innate and adaptive immune system, influencing the production of important endogenous antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidin, and regulating the inflammatory cascade.

Scientific Evidence

Deficiency in vitamin D is associated with increased autoimmunity and an increased susceptibility to infection. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 observational studies involving 9,715 critically ill patients (published in Critical Care) found that levels of 25(OH)-D less than 50 nmol/L were associated with increased rates of infection (RR 1.49, 95% CI 1.12–1.99, P = 0.007), sepsis (RR 1.46, 95% CI 1.27–1.68, P < 0.001), 30-day mortality (RR 1.42), and in-hospital mortality (RR 1.79). The association is observational; causality remains under investigation.

A specific clinical study examined vitamin D in the context of purulent abscess infections: a retrospective study investigated the relationship between vitamin D deficiency and the severity of purulent oropharyngeal infections, including patients diagnosed with peritonsillar phlegmons, laterocervical abscesses, and peritonsillar abscesses, categorized based on vitamin D levels: deficiency (<30 ng/mL) and optimal levels (≥30 ng/mL). Patients with vitamin D deficiency had a significantly longer hospital stay. The mechanisms proposed include stimulating the production of antimicrobial peptides, reducing excessive inflammation, and modulating macrophage and T-lymphocyte activity.

A 2023 PubMed review noted that meta-analyses of observational studies have demonstrated a link between low vitamin D status and risk of acute respiratory infections; however, meta-analyses of RCTs had mixed results, demonstrating a small protective role for vitamin D supplementation against acute respiratory infections, especially in those with vitamin D deficiency and children, and providing modest benefits for the management of type 1 diabetes and IBD. Evidence for vitamin D directly preventing or resolving abscesses specifically remains limited and largely inferential from broader infectious-disease data.

Iron

Clinicians note that recurrent abscesses should prompt consideration of nutritional deficiency, especially of iron. The relationship between iron and infection susceptibility is, however, complex. A PubMed-indexed reassessment of the literature concluded that many physicians believe that patients with iron deficiency have an increased susceptibility to infections; data in the literature, however, are contradictory, and in many instances the reports are vulnerable to critical review. It seems clear that the inflammatory response, when assessed by skin reactivity, is diminished in iron deficiency; the precise molecular defect remains undefined, but the abnormality is detected by several assays measuring cell-mediated immunity, and normal function is usually restored following iron repletion.

The host's relationship with iron during infection is particularly nuanced. Normal pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa require iron for critical biological processes such as respiration, DNA synthesis, and oxidative stress management; the host limits iron availability by elevating iron-binding proteins such as transferrin, lactoferrin, and ferritin in the circulation and at sites of infection. This means iron availability at infection sites is a dual-edged factor: deficiency may impair immunity, while the host also deliberately sequesters iron to starve pathogens.

Protein and Amino Acids

Proteins play a vital role in supporting the immune system, and a deficiency can negatively impact immune function. Antibody production, crucial for adaptive immunity, may be compromised, leading to a weakened response against pathogens. Proteins are essential for the proper functioning of immune cells, including T and B cells, and influence the production of cytokines that regulate immune responses. The complement system, involved in inflammation and pathogen destruction, also requires sufficient protein. Moreover, proteins contribute to wound healing, and their deficiency can impair tissue repair. Clinical evidence confirms this: protein malnutrition has been thought to impair collagen synthesis, increasing the risk of wound complications; furthermore, malnutrition impairs immune system function, leading to a higher rate of surgical site infections, which can have serious sequelae such as sepsis.

Omega-3 fatty acids and specific amino acids were linked to enhanced wound-healing and immune function, while vitamins A, B, and C and zinc positively influenced healing stages.

Herbs and Natural Ingredients

Turmeric / Curcumin (Curcuma longa)

Traditional Use

Turmeric has been used in the Ayurvedic medicine system for the management of various medical disorders such as jaundice, skin infections, wound healing, flatulence, sprains, arthritis, and stomach disturbances since ancient times. In the Asian society, ground turmeric has been used as a spice for centuries. It also plays a role in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine, where it is used to treat different maladies such as dermatologic ailments, infections, liver complaints, and depression. Since the period of Ayurveda (approximately 1900 B.C.), it has been used to treat skin diseases, respiratory disorders, and gastrointestinal disorders, as well as aches, pains, wounds, sprains, and liver malfunctions. Moreover, it is considered an effective way to expel worms, bacteria, and fungus.

Scientific Evidence

Curcumin has been shown to possess significant anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic, anti-coagulant, and anti-infective effects. Curcumin has also been shown to have significant wound healing properties; it acts on various stages of the natural wound healing process to hasten healing.

Curcumin, a principal bioactive substance of turmeric, is reported as a strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral agent; however, its antimicrobial properties require further detailed investigations into clinical and multidrug-resistant isolates. In vitro testing across more than 100 bacterial strains confirmed that curcumin showed much greater sensitivity of Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria. Notably, curcumin, alone or in combination with antibiotics, may help to establish a new approach for combating the pathogenicity and drug resistance of M. abscessus.

A 2025 scoping review (PRISMA-compliant, searching PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library) identified 19 clinical trials on curcumin in wound healing, of which 14 out of 19 were randomized controlled trials. Curcumin was used in various dosages and treatment durations, and in multiple forms, including topical and oral formulations. However, the authors noted that although pre-clinical studies are promising, a comprehensive clinical review is lacking. Evidence quality for curcumin in abscess specifically remains preliminary; most studies address general wound healing or gingivitis. There are few published studies on the use of curcumin in human wound care, with evidence primarily provided from in-vitro and in-vivo studies.

A major limitation is bioavailability: due to its low systemic bioavailability, curcumin has been formulated in the form of nanoparticles and other delivery systems to target antibiotic activity.

Honey (including Manuka honey)

Traditional Use

Wound dressings with honey have been practically used since ancient Egyptian times to treat abscesses, diabetes mellitus, eye and ear infections, gastrointestinal diseases, oral ulcers, gynecological diseases, nail infections, airway infections, and wounds after circumcision. Honey has also been used since the wartime era of the Prophet Muhammad to treat wounds; it was later shown that honey can kill bacteria in wounds and can be used as a medicine. This method is still used today in several Islamic countries and has been used by Russian soldiers since World War I to prevent wound infection and accelerate wound healing.

Scientific Evidence

Honey, a natural product with a rich history of medicinal use, has gained increasing recognition for its potent antimicrobial properties, particularly against antibiotic-resistant pathogens. This includes efficacy against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antimicrobial action of honey is multifactorial, involving hydrogen peroxide production, phenolic compounds, high sugar concentrations, and the presence of bee defensin-1.

Certain types, such as Manuka honey, are particularly effective in clinical applications due to their higher levels of bioactive compounds. Honey has also been shown to disrupt bacterial biofilms, a major factor in antibiotic resistance, enhancing its therapeutic potential in treating chronic wounds and infections.

Manuka honey is a well-established antimicrobial, with a broad spectrum of activity attributed to the presence of methylglyoxal. The established antimicrobial potential of manuka honey has resulted in the development of various medical-grade honeys and has been further explored for its synergistic activity alongside antibiotics. Laboratory research published in PMC (2022) found that manuka honey is effective against M. abscessus and clinical isolates, and manuka honey can improve the activity of amikacin.

A registered randomized controlled trial protocol (published 2025, PMC) was specifically designed to evaluate honey as a wound-care modality in treating deep neck space abscesses, reflecting growing clinical interest; results are pending. Studies on the use of honey in wound care have primarily been conducted on superficial wounds as well as diabetic ulcers and burns. Evidence directly supporting honey's use for resolving formed abscesses in controlled human trials remains limited; existing RCT evidence is mostly for surface wounds and post-surgical cavities.

Garlic (Allium sativum) and Allicin

Traditional Use

Turmeric — and similarly garlic — has been traditionally used as an antiseptic, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory agent in the treatment of wounds and burns, gastrointestinal and liver disorders, and respiratory system diseases. Garlic's use in wound and infection management spans millennia across Asian, Middle Eastern, and European traditional medicine systems.

Scientific Evidence

Garlic (Allium sativum) has potent antimicrobial activity due to allicin (diallylthiosulfinate) synthesized by enzyme catalysis in damaged garlic tissues. Allicin gives crushed garlic its characteristic odor. In a dose-dependent manner, allicin can inhibit the proliferation of both bacteria and fungi or kill cells outright, including antibiotic-resistant strains like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

PMC-published laboratory research on allicin found that allicin's growth-inhibitory effect was demonstrated against clinical isolates of lung pathogenic bacteria from the genera Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, and Staphylococcus, including multi-drug resistant strains. An in vitro study found that allicin was effective against 30 strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis, including methicillin-resistant strains.

A PubMed-indexed study on aqueous allicin extract tested against MRSA clinical isolates found relevant antibacterial activity: a new, stable, aqueous extract of allicin (extracted from garlic) was tested on 30 clinical isolates of MRSA that showed a range of susceptibilities to mupirocin, using agar diffusion tests and minimum inhibitory concentrations. The evidence base for garlic is largely in vitro and animal-model work. A meta-analysis of clinical data indicated that adding allicin to conventional therapy improves the eradication of H. pylori infections — but this is specific to gastrointestinal infection, not cutaneous abscesses. No registered clinical trials specifically addressing garlic for abscess treatment were identified in the literature reviewed.

Tea Tree Oil (Melaleuca alternifolia)

Traditional Use

Tea tree oil has been used for centuries as a botanical medicine, and has only in recent decades surfaced in the scientific literature as a promising adjunctive wound treatment.

Scientific Evidence

Tea tree oil is antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and has demonstrated ability to activate monocytes. There are few apparent side effects to using tea tree oil topically in low concentrations, with contact dermatitis being the most common. A PubMed review specifically addressing Staphylococcus aureus and wounds noted that both methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus are of concern in their ability to cause difficult skin and underlying tissue infections, and Melaleuca alternifolia oil (tea tree oil) has demonstrated promising efficacy in treating these infections. Tea tree oil has been effective as an adjunctive therapy in treating osteomyelitis and infected chronic wounds in case studies and small clinical trials. Evidence strength is low-to-moderate; studies are predominantly small or in vitro, with limited large RCTs.

Dietary and Lifestyle Factors

Overall Nutritional Adequacy

Optimal wound healing requires adequate nutrition. Nutrition deficiencies impede the normal processes that allow progression through stages of wound healing. Malnutrition has also been related to decreased wound tensile strength and increased infection rates. Specific intervention guidelines for patients recovering from abscess-related surgery emphasize that patients should consume enough nutrients, especially protein, vitamins, and minerals, which can be achieved by adjusting the dietary structure and increasing nutritional supplements.

Sugar Intake and Glycemic Control

Glycemic control is consistently identified across the literature as a modifiable factor affecting abscess risk and recurrence. A patient with poor glycemic control runs an increased risk for perianal abscess, and if glycemic control improves, the risk for recurrence decreases. Improving glycemic control and weight reduction may reduce the risk of developing pyogenic liver abscess, according to a population-based Taiwanese cohort study.

Dietary Fiber and Bowel Health

In the context of perianal abscess specifically, risk factors like prolonged sitting, constipation, and improper diet can heighten the likelihood of anal gland blockage and resulting infection. Interventions for perianal abscess wound healing recommend dietary adjustment to include sufficient nutrients and control blood glucose within the normal range.

Alcohol and Micronutrient Depletion

Chronic alcohol consumption undermines antioxidant defenses, provokes oxidative stress, and can lead to deficiencies in critical micronutrients like zinc and selenium, which are vital for immune function and wound repair. Chronic alcohol consumption has been linked to decreased plasma levels and increased urinary excretion of zinc, whereas selenium levels have been found to be significantly lower in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis.

Weight Management

Mendelian randomization evidence found that obesity had a positive causal effect on skin and soft tissue infections; reasonable weight control is a possible way to reduce the occurrence of such infections, especially in patients undergoing surgery.

Nutritional Immunity: Iron and Zinc in Host Defense

Nutritional immunity is an essential defense process by which the host restricts the supply of critical micronutrients to invading pathogens, thus hindering their survival and growth. During wound infections, this mechanism is instrumental in determining the course of host–pathogen interactions. The host uses calprotectin, a calcium- and zinc-binding protein secreted by neutrophils, to sequester manganese and zinc, disrupting microbial enzymatic processes and microbial growth. Dietary interventions that affect iron or zinc status therefore interact with these mechanisms in complex ways that are not yet fully resolved by clinical evidence.

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