Yarrow

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Natural Source

Achillea millefolium, known as yarrow, is a medicinal plant in the Asteraceae (daisy) family, considered one of the oldest known botanicals used by humans and one of the most important medicinal plants in the pharmaceutical field. It is commonly known as yarrow or common yarrow, and is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae.

Yarrow is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae; it is sometimes called plumajillo, or "little feather," for the shape of its leaves. There are a variety of related species, including white, red, and yellow yarrow, all of which have been studied for their medicinal properties.

The genus name Achillea and the species epithet millefolium (Latin for "thousand leaves") reflect both mythological and morphological attributes of the plant. In the Mediterranean world and the subsequent tradition, yarrow is supposed to have been discovered by Achilles, one of the Greeks at war against Troy; hence its name achilleios in Greek and achillea in Latin, which became the Linnaean genus Achillea.

The genus Achillea from the family Asteraceae includes 110–140 species, distributed mostly in Europe and Asia. Common names in the historical and ethnobotanical literature include milfoil, soldier's woundwort, bloodwort, nosebleed plant, staunchweed, carpenter's weed, and knight's milfoil. In antiquity, the plant was known as herba militaris for its use in stanching the flow of blood from wounds.

Botanical Description and Natural Occurrence

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) is a perennial herb native to Europe and renowned for its medicinal properties. The fresh or dried aerial (above-ground) parts are collected during the flowering season. The European Pharmacopoeia defines the herbal substance as consisting of the whole or cut, dried flowering tops of yarrow, Achillea millefolium L., and specifies that it should contain a minimum of 2 ml/kg essential oil (dried drug) and proazulenes, expressed as chamazulene, at a minimum of 0.02% (dried drug), per Ph. Eur. monograph ref. 2016:1564-5.

Common Forms and Preparations

According to the EMA Community Herbal Monograph on Achillea millefolium herba, recognized preparations include: (a) comminuted herbal substance; (b) expressed juice from fresh herb (DER: 1:0.6–0.9); (c) liquid extract (DER 1:1), extraction solvent ethanol 25% V/V; (d) tincture (ratio of herbal substance to extraction solvent 1:5), extraction solvent ethanol 45% V/V; and (e) further tincture preparations. Traditional tea preparations (infusions) using the comminuted herbal substance are recognized in the German Commission E monograph and multiple historical pharmacopoeias. Additionally, yarrow is available in modern commerce as standardized capsules or tablets, dried bulk herb, essential oil (obtained by steam distillation), and topical creams or ointments.

---

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient and Classical Mediterranean Traditions

Yarrow is said to have been used since the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC); one legend credits Chiron the Centaur with teaching Achilles how to make an ointment from it to heal the bleeding wounds of soldiers. Dioscorides and Galen later recommended its use after surgery to prevent inflammation and to promote healing.

It was used in ancient times to heal wounds and stop bleeding, and in the 16th century, the crushed leaves were used to stop nosebleeds. In traditional medicine, yarrow was used in part due to its astringent properties and the mild laxative effect of its leaves.

European Folk and Herbal Traditions

In the Northern hemisphere, traditional uses include digestive problems, liver and gall-bladder conditions, menstrual irregularities, cramps, fever, and wound healing. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) was named after the Greek mythical hero Achilles, who legend says used it to stop bleeding in his soldiers' wounds. The 17th-century English herbalist Culpeper described yarrow as a herb for cramps that "restrains violent bleedings" and that "leaves cure wounds, and is good for inflammations, ulcers, fistulas, and all such runnings as abound with moisture."

In European traditional practice, yarrow was used against inflammatory and spasmodic gastrointestinal complaints, hepato-biliary disorders, as an appetite-enhancing drug, against skin inflammations, and for wound healing, due to its antiphlogistic, choleretic, and spasmolytic properties.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine uses A. millefolium as an antihaemorrhagic and wound-healing agent, and as an effective cosmetic soothing agent for sores, skin disorders (wounds), snakebites, and varicose veins.

Native American Traditions

Yarrow and its North American varieties were traditionally used by many Native American nations; among Plains indigenous peoples it was used to reduce pain or fever and aid sleep. The Navajo historically considered it a "life medicine" and chewed the plant for toothaches and used its infusions for earaches. The Miwok in California used the plant as an analgesic and head cold remedy. Native American nations used the plant for healing cuts and abrasions, relief from earaches and throat infections, and as an eyewash. In the early 20th century, some Ojibwe people used a decoction of yarrow leaves on hot stones and inhaled it to treat headaches.

In American ethnobotany, the Cherokee, Iroquois, and Mohegan tribes used yarrow as a digestive aid and to treat a variety of swellings.

Broad Traditional Uses Summarized

A wide range of chemical compounds have been isolated from yarrow; different parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine as a diaphoretic, astringent, tonic, stimulant, mild aromatic, remedy for cold and influenza, treatment for amenorrhea, and antiphlogistic. The aerial parts of the plant were used for phlegm conditions, as a bitter digestive tonic to encourage bile flow, and as a diuretic.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) is one of the most widely used medicinal plants in the world, primarily for wounds, digestive problems, respiratory infections, and skin conditions, and secondarily, among other uses, for liver disease and as a mild sedative.

---

3. Phytochemical Composition and Key Active Constituents

Essential Oil

Monoterpenes are the most representative metabolites, constituting approximately 90% of the essential oils. The essential oil is found in different concentrations in all aboveground parts of the plant; however, leaves contain less than the flower-heads. It contains sesquiterpene lactones which are precursors of azulenes (proazulenes, e.g., achillicin); upon steam distillation, they yield azulene and chamazulene. Oils rich in azulene and chamazulene (up to 51% of the oil) have a characteristic deep blue colour.

Monoterpenes present in the essential oil include α-pinene, β-pinene, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphor, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), limonene, sabinene, terpin-4-ol, terpineol, and α-thujone, with oxygenated monoterpenes enriched in aerial parts compared to floral oils.

Other sesquiterpenes include achillin, achillifolin, matricarin, millefin, dihydroparthenolide, germacrene D (up to 54%), β-caryophyllene (up to 8%), balchanolide, and farnesol.

Some main components and their reported concentration ranges in A. millefolium include: β-thujone (0.4–55.3%), germacrene-D (2–20.6%), 1,8-cineole (1.2–19.8%), isospathulenol (0.5–36%), camphor (0.6–25.5%), trans-nerolidol (0.4–48.1%), and cubenol (0.1–42.9%).

Sesquiterpene Lactones

Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones are also abundant, including achillicin, achillin, caryophyllene, milefin, millefolide, chamazulene, azulene, and isoartemisia ketone, alongside sterols and saponins. Several pharmacological actions have been mostly attributed to the presence of azulenogenous sesquiterpene lactones in the essential oil of Achillea; tetraploid species accumulate proazulenes such as achillicin.

Flavonoids

Kaempferol, luteolin, and apigenin are the main flavonoids found in A. millefolium. Yarrow also contains phenolic acids such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid, and flavonoids including myricetin, hesperidin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, rutin, and hyperoside.

Scientists have confirmed the presence of additional flavonoid components, including catechin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, axillarin, centaureidin, fisetin, hesperetin, hesperidin, hyperoside, isoquercetin, isovitexin, jaceidin, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, luteolin-7-O-glycoside, luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, naringenin, nicotiflorin, penduletin, quercetin, and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide.

Alkaloids, Tannins, and Other Compounds

A wide range of chemical compounds have been isolated from yarrow, mainly isovaleric acid, salicylic acid, asparagin, sterols, flavonoids, bitters, tannins, and coumarins. The alkaloids achilletin, betonicine, stachydrine, and trigonelline have also been characterized. The compound achilleine possesses hemostatic (rapid blood-clotting) activity.

The main pharmacologically active principles have been identified as: the essential oil (antimicrobial activity), proazulenes and other sesquiterpene lactones (antiphlogistic activity), dicaffeoylquinic acids (choleretic activity), and flavonoids (antispasmodic activity).

---

4. Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Camphene, limonene, apigenin, and other components show anti-inflammatory effects through cyclooxygenase inhibition, prostaglandin E2 inhibition, and other mechanisms.

The essential oil of A. millefolium (AM-EO) has been shown to suppress LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage inflammatory responses, including reduction of cellular nitric oxide (NO), superoxide anion production, lipid peroxidation, and GSH levels. This activity appears to occur via down-regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), COX-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression.

Research on guaianolide compounds isolated from A. millefolium has shown that these sesquiterpene lactones inhibit the expression of iNOS/COX-2 signaling proteins, NF-κB signaling proteins (NF-κB and IκB), and MAPK signaling proteins. Additionally, one compound (millefolacton C) significantly inhibited NO release and repressed pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-18, PGE2, and IL-6.

Caffeic acid, a phenolic acid constituent, targets NF-κB and COX-2.

Antioxidant Activity

Yarrow is considered safe for supplemental use; flavonoids such as kaempferol, luteolin, and apigenin are its main constituents, and most of both the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of this herb have been attributed to its flavonoid content.

Apigenin glucosides, chlorogenic acid, chrysoeriol, luteolin glucosides, rutin, and dicaffeoylquinic acid isomers have exhibited antioxidant effects.

Hemostatic Mechanism

The alkaloid achilleine possesses hemostatic (rapid blood-clotting) activity.

Antispasmodic and Gastrointestinal Mechanisms

The flavonoid fraction — particularly apigenin and luteolin — contributes to antispasmodic activity. The main pharmacologically active principles for these gastrointestinal effects are the essential oil (antimicrobial), proazulenes and other sesquiterpene lactones (antiphlogistic), dicaffeoylquinic acids (choleretic), and flavonoids (antispasmodic).

Cytochrome P450 Interactions

By affecting CYP450, A. millefolium can increase the concentration of certain drugs sensitive to hepatic enzymes, including, for example, estradiol, acetaminophen, and codeine. The A. millefolium–CYP inhibition implies nonspecific activity against various human drug-metabolizing enzymes, which might result in larger-than-predicted in vivo or clinical herb-drug interactions.

---

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Gastrointestinal Health

Yarrow has documented common utilization in the traditional medicine of several cultures from Europe to Asia for the treatment of spasmodic gastrointestinal disorders and hepatobiliary conditions. Multiple preclinical (animal and in vitro) investigations have examined antispasmodic, gastroprotective, and choleretic activities. Preclinical studies indicate that yarrow may have anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer activities. Yarrow shows several characteristic pharmacological effects including gastroprotective, antibacterial, antioxidant, antiseptic, expectorant, and carminative activity consistent with the reported uses of plant extracts in indigenous medicine.

Evidence strength: The body of evidence for gastrointestinal uses is primarily preclinical (animal and in vitro). Human clinical trials are lacking, which limits yarrow's acceptance in modern medicine. No robust randomized controlled trials specifically examining isolated yarrow for IBS, dyspepsia, or biliary disorders have been published to date.

5.2 Wound Healing and Skin

Significant roles for yarrow in traditional medicine and successful administration in the treatment of inflammatory conditions and pain (wounds, cuts, and abrasions) have been described, with lotions or ointments containing common yarrow extracts used for topical applications. The broad spectrum of beneficial properties of A. millefolium includes treatment of inflammation, pain, and gastrointestinal disorders, with extracts also broadly used for skin applications due to their anti-inflammatory, skin-lightening, wound-healing, rejuvenating, and anti-microbial properties.

A small clinical study examined yarrow's effects on nipple fissures in nursing mothers. Firouzabadi et al. compared the effects of yarrow, honey, and breast milk for healing nipple fissures in a study published in the Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 2020.

Evidence strength: While in vitro and animal studies confirm relevant wound-healing mechanisms (antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, astringent), controlled human clinical evidence is very limited. The wound-healing indication is recognized in the EMA Community Herbal Monograph as a traditional use.

5.3 Dysmenorrhea (Primary Menstrual Pain)

Primary dysmenorrhea occurs in as many as 50% of post-menarche women. One randomized clinical trial (RCT) assessed the effectiveness of Achillea millefolium on primary dysmenorrhea; the trial was conducted in western Iran in 2013 and included female university students. Subjects were randomly divided into two equal groups receiving either placebo or A. millefolium in teabag form for 3 days in 2 menstruation cycles, with pain severity graded by visual analog scale. The mean change in pain score in the A. millefolium group was significantly greater than in the placebo group at 1 month (P = .001) and 2 months (P < .0001). The authors concluded that A. millefolium is effective in minimizing pain severity in primary dysmenorrhea.

Evidence strength: A single small RCT with positive findings. The results of this randomized trial showed that A. millefolium may be an effective non-pharmacological alternative for students with primary dysmenorrhea, with evidence of symptom improvement 1 and 2 months after beginning the treatment. However, the study population was small and confined to one university in Iran, limiting generalizability. Replication in larger, multi-site trials is needed.

5.4 Multiple Sclerosis (Add-on Therapy)

A triple-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled parallel group trial was conducted on 75 MS patients to evaluate the efficacy of A. millefolium aqueous extract as add-on therapy. The patients were randomized into three groups: placebo, and two groups receiving A. millefolium at doses of 250 mg/day and 500 mg/day for one year. The primary outcome was the annualized relapse rate; additionally, the number and volume of lesions were obtained from MRI scans. The authors found beneficial effects of A. millefolium aqueous extract as an add-on therapy in MS patients.

A separate study showed that oral administration of aqueous extract of Achillea (40, 200, and 400 mg/kg) attenuated disease severity in combination with inflammatory responses and demyelinating lesions in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS in male C57BL/6 mice.

Evidence strength: A single published RCT with n=75 over 12 months is encouraging but insufficient to draw firm clinical conclusions. Supporting preclinical evidence exists. Further large, independently replicated trials are required before this indication can be established.

5.5 Liver and Metabolic Health

A double-blind randomized clinical trial published in BMC Nutrition (2025) reported that an Achillea millefolium capsule improved liver enzymes and lipid profile compared to placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes. In preclinical investigations, A. millefolium has been shown to protect the liver. Studies indicate that Achillea millefolium exhibits anti-hyperglycemic and anti-hyperlipidemic properties, enhances collagen proliferation regulation, suppresses inflammatory responses, and displays significant antioxidant activity.

Evidence strength: Mostly preclinical evidence (animal models). A 2025 RCT in type-2 diabetic patients is promising but represents a single study; further trials are needed.

5.6 Antimicrobial Activity

Compounds such as α-pinene, β-pinene, borneol, camphor, 1,8-cineole, sabinene, caryophyllene, terpinen-4-ol, and α-thujone have demonstrated antimicrobial activity. Yarrow extracts exhibit strong biological activity against pathogens; studies have investigated the inhibitory effects of A. millefolium decoction and ethanol extracts on the growth of Clostridioides difficile RT001 and its toxigenic supernatant-induced inflammation.

Evidence strength: Predominantly in vitro data. No human clinical trials have evaluated yarrow as a standalone antimicrobial agent in clinical infections.

5.7 Chemotherapy-Induced Oral Mucositis

Clinical studies have indicated a therapeutic effect of A. millefolium on chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis in cancer patients. A multi-herb preparation that includes yarrow herb (BNO 1030) has also been evaluated in a pediatric tonsillitis trial. A randomized, open-label, multicenter comparative study of the therapeutic efficacy, safety, and tolerability of BNO 1030 extract — containing marshmallow root, chamomile flowers, horsetail herb, walnut leaves, yarrow herb, oak bark, and dandelion herb — was published in the American Journal of Otolaryngology (2019) for the treatment of acute non-bacterial tonsillitis in children aged 6 to 18 years. However, because BNO 1030 is a multi-herb preparation, yarrow's individual contribution cannot be isolated from these results.

Evidence strength: Limited; single trials, often using multi-herb preparations that do not permit attribution to yarrow alone.

5.8 Cardiovascular Effects

In animal studies, yarrow has been shown to reduce smooth muscle spasms, lower blood pressure, and cause bronchodilation. Research reveals no clinical data regarding the use of A. millefolium in cardiovascular conditions; however, a related plant, Achillea wilhelmsii, produced antihypertensive and lipid-modifying effects in a clinical study. Achillea species have shown anti-arrhythmic, anti-thrombotic, vasorelaxant, anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-hypertensive effects in preclinical settings.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only for A. millefolium specifically. No qualifying clinical trials have been published for cardiovascular indications as of the most recent reviewed literature.

5.9 Anxiolytic Effects

Preclinical studies indicate that yarrow may have anxiolytic activity. Neurological effects including anti-nociceptive and anti-anxiety actions have been described for Achillea plants. These findings derive from animal studies; no human clinical trials examining anxiolytic effects of yarrow as a sole agent have been published.

Evidence strength: Animal studies only. Clinical evidence is absent.

5.10 Dermatological Applications

Extracts from A. millefolium have been applied in cosmetics for cleansing, moisturizing, soothing, conditioning, and skin-lightening properties. Clinical studies indicate that A. millefolium did not affect atopic dermatitis in the trials conducted to date, despite its traditional use in skin conditions.

Evidence strength: In vitro and preclinical evidence for anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties in skin. A published clinical trial found no significant benefit for atopic dermatitis.

---

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Yarrow

• Gastrointestinal system: Spasmodic gastrointestinal disorders and hepatobiliary conditions.
• Integumentary system (skin and wound healing): Inflammatory conditions and pain, including wounds, cuts, and abrasions.
• Reproductive/gynecological system: Gynecological disorders including menstrual irregularities.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial activities.
• Nervous system: Anti-nociceptive and anti-anxiety effects demonstrated in preclinical models.
• Cardiovascular system: Anti-arrhythmic, anti-thrombotic, vasorelaxant, anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-hypertensive preclinical effects.
• Hepatic and metabolic system: Hepatoprotective effects and anti-hyperglycemic activity observed in preclinical and early clinical research.

---

7. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Studies

Traditionally, yarrow herb at 4.5 g/day has been used for various conditions; however, there are no quality clinical studies to validate this dosing.

Yarrow is possibly safe when taken in doses of 250–500 mg daily for 12 months, based on the MS clinical trial described above.

In the 12-month randomized controlled trial on multiple sclerosis patients, subjects received A. millefolium aqueous extract at doses of either 250 mg/day or 500 mg/day.

A 12-month clinical study evaluated the effect of 250 mg and 500 mg Achillea millefolium flower extract (equivalent to 2 to 4 g dry flowers) on mean annualized relapse rate among people with multiple sclerosis (N=75).

In the dysmenorrhea RCT, subjects received A. millefolium in teabag form for 3 days in 2 menstruation cycles. The specific mass of herbal material per teabag was not separately specified in published abstracts.

The EMA Community Herbal Monograph recognizes several preparation-specific dosage forms as described under traditional use, including comminuted herbal substance for infusion, expressed juice from fresh herb (DER 1:0.6–0.9), and standardized liquid extracts and tinctures. Exact dose figures for oral internal use were not extracted verbatim from the monograph in available search results, and readers are directed to the official EMA monograph for precise dose specifications.

---

8. Safety, Adverse Effects, and Drug Interactions

General Safety Profile

Animal studies and extensive human experience have shown that yarrow is safe for those who are not allergic to it and is well tolerated. No serious adverse effect has been seen toward using this herb except contact dermatitis.

Contact Dermatitis and Allergic Reactions

Contact dermatitis is the most commonly reported adverse reaction; high doses may be associated with anticholinergic effects. The sensitizing sesquiterpene lactones — including α-peroxyachifolid and related guaianolide peroxides — have been identified as the primary contact allergens. Yarrow use is contraindicated in known allergies to any members of the Aster family.

Thujone Content

Yarrow products that contain the chemical thujone might not be safe; thujone is poisonous in large doses. The concentration of thujone in the essential oil of A. millefolium is, however, considered too low to present a risk to human health at normal medicinal doses, according to EMA assessment.

Pregnancy and Lactation

In folk medicine, A. millefolium has been used as an emmenagogue. The claim that yarrow has been shown to be specifically contraindicated during pregnancy is based on a single low-quality rat study, the results of which were incorrectly interpreted. Nonetheless, yarrow is generally listed as contraindicated during pregnancy in most pharmacopoeial and regulatory references, owing to its emmenagogue properties and lack of controlled safety data in pregnant women.

Drug Interactions via CYP450

A. millefolium interactions with drugs have been categorized into minor and serious ones, such as affecting the cytochrome P450 (CYP) metabolism enzyme, resulting in a concentration rise in drugs such as erythromycin, diazepam, and cyclosporine. The greatest interactions are for drugs with a narrow therapeutic index.

Interactions include increasing the concentration of estradiol, acetaminophen, and codeine by CYP effects. Additionally, the leaf and flower extracts of A. millefolium were assumed to promote acid production in the stomach, potentially lowering the efficiency of gastrointestinal tract medicines, by a mechanism other than CYP inhibition.

Genotoxicity of Essential Oil

An investigation into the genotoxicity of the oil produced by A. millefolium found that induction of mitotic non-disjunction or crossing over was correlated with the genotoxicity of the oil. The findings indicated that further research is required to determine whether or not A. millefolium essential oil can interfere with the recombinational process in mammalian cells, and it is recommended that the oil be utilized with caution.

Regulatory Status

Despite the plant's classification as non-poisonous and approval for use in alcoholic beverages by the United States Food and Drug Administration, certain harmful consequences have been reported following its use by people and in animal tests. In the European Union, the EMA's Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) has issued formal herbal monographs for both Millefolii herba (yarrow herb) and Millefolii flos (yarrow flower), covering traditional use indications.

---

9. Overall Evidence Assessment

The combination of human use data from multiple cultures, independently reporting similar activities for yarrow, and the discovery of potentially relevant bioactivities by in vitro and animal studies represent meaningful evidence of the plant's efficacy. Clinical studies have indicated therapeutic effects of A. millefolium on multiple sclerosis, chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis in cancer patients, and dysmenorrhea, but it did not affect atopic dermatitis. Achillea species could be of therapeutic potential for treating a wide range of diseases, but further investigations are needed regarding other properties.

Across all areas, the volume and quality of human clinical evidence remains limited. Most mechanistic findings derive from in vitro cell studies or animal experiments. The few published human RCTs — most notably the MS add-on therapy trial and the dysmenorrhea RCT — are small and require independent replication. The gap between robust traditional ethnobotanical use and established clinical proof remains a key challenge for this botanical.

References

• Farasati Far B, et al. Achillea millefolium: Mechanism of action, pharmacokinetic, clinical drug-drug interactions and tolerability. PMC / Heliyon, 2023.
• Ali SI, et al. Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Achillea millefolium L.: A Review. Phytotherapy Research, 2017. PubMed PMID: 28618131.
• Schütz K, et al. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L. s.l.): pharmaceutical quality of commercial samples. PubMed PMID: 18271298.
• Baser KH, et al. A review on phytochemistry and medicinal properties of the genus Achillea. PMC, 2011.
• Kowalska A, et al. Achillea Species as Sources of Active Phytochemicals for Dermatological and Cosmetic Applications. PMC, 2021.
• Nouri A, et al. Bio-effectiveness of the main flavonoids of Achillea millefolium in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders — a review. PMC, 2017.
• Łyczko J, et al. Phytochemical Profiling, Antioxidant and Tyrosinase Regulatory Activities of Extracts from Herb, Leaf and In Vitro Culture of Achillea millefolium (Yarrow). PMC, 2023.
• Ayoobi F, et al. Achillea millefolium is beneficial as an add-on therapy in patients with multiple sclerosis: A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytomedicine, 2019. PubMed PMID: 30599916.
• Jenabi E, Fereidoony B. Effect of Achillea Millefolium on Relief of Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Double-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol, 2015. PubMed PMID: 26238568.
• Azizi G, et al. Effect of aqueous extract of Achillea millefolium on the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL/6 mice. PMC, 2014.
• Farzan M, et al. The anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects of Achillea millefolium L. extracts on Clostridioides difficile ribotype 001 in human intestinal epithelial cells. PMC, 2024.
• Sieniawska E, et al. In vitro and in vivo biological activities of azulene derivatives with potential applications in medicine. PMC, 2021.
• Sadeghi H, et al. Promising impacts of Achillea spp., beyond a medicinal plant, against toxins, toxicities, and injuries: In vivo and in vitro mechanisms. PMC, 2025.
• Experimental and clinical studies on pharmacological actions of the genus Achillea: A comprehensive and updated review. PMC, 2025. PubMed PMID: 40255946.
• European Medicines Agency (EMA). Millefolii herba — herbal medicinal product. HMPC Community Herbal Monograph.
• EMA. Assessment report on Achillea millefolium L., herba — Revision 1.
• Drugs.com. Yarrow: Uses, Benefits & Dosage. Last reviewed July 10, 2025.
• Guaianolides from Achillea millefolium L. and their anti-inflammatory activity. Phytochemistry, 2023.
• Phytochemical profiles and therapeutic applications of selected medicinal plants: an evidence-based narrative review. Exploration of Medicine, 2026.
• American Herbal Products Association. Herbs in History: Yarrow.