IngredientesAntirrhinum majus (common snapdragon) is a flowering plant species in the Antirrhinum genus. The plant was placed in the family Plantaginaceae following a revision of its prior classical family, Scrophulariaceae. Its common name, "snapdragon," originates from the flowers' reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the "mouth" of the flower to snap open like a dragon's mouth. The botanical name, Antirrhinum, refers to the snout-like form of the flower.
Antirrhinum majus is a perennial Mediterranean-native plant that is commonly used for mass display. This plant is native to the Mediterranean region (e.g., Morocco and Portugal north to southern France, and east to Turkey and Syria). Snapdragon is closely allied to the Toadflaxes. It is not truly a native herb in Britain but has become naturalized in many places, on old walls and chalk cliffs, being an escape from gardens where it has been long cultivated.
Antirrhinum majus is a perennial growing to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) by 0.2 m (0 ft 8 in) at a medium rate. The leaves are spirally arranged and broadly lanceolate, up to 3 inches long and 1 inch wide. The species is widely used as an ornamental plant in borders and as a cut flower. It is perennial but usually cultivated as an annual plant. The species has been in culture since the 15th century.
The plant is used in several distinct forms as a dietary supplement or natural ingredient:
The medicinal use of snapdragon dates back to the Middle Ages, when this plant was commonly cultivated in monastery gardens both for its beauty and its mild medicinal properties. In traditional folk medicine of southern and central Europe, snapdragons were primarily used as an anti-inflammatory, astringent, soothing, and cleansing agent, mainly for external use.
It was traditionally used as a diuretic and to treat scurvy, liver problems, and tumours. The leaves and flowers were used to treat tumours and ulcers as antiphlogistic, resolvent, stimulant, and poultices. The plant has bitter and stimulant properties, and the leaves of this and several allied species have been employed on the Continent in cataplasms to tumours and ulcers.
Antirrhinum majus has a long history of use in traditional medicine across Europe and Asia. The flowers and leaves of snapdragon have been used as traditional herbal medicine for treating several symptoms and diseases, including watery eyes, gum scurvy, hemorrhoids, ulcers, liver disorder, and tumors.
An oil that is little inferior to olive oil is said to be obtained from the seeds, and the report states that the plant has been cultivated in Russia for this purpose. Snapdragons (Antirrhinium majus L.), a herbaceous plant belonging to the Plantain family (Plantaginaceae), present promising research prospects. In Ukraine, snapdragons are currently cultivated as ornamental plants, which provides a raw material base.
Although snapdragon has a long history of use as a traditional Chinese medicine, recent research has provided further evidence of its medical values and properties.
It was valued in olden times like the Toadflax as a preservative against witchcraft. Snapdragons were often planted in gardens as a protective shield against evil forces. They were thought to protect against falsehoods, evil spirits, and witchcraft. In the Victorian Language of Flowers, the snapdragon represented presumption.
A green dye is obtained from the flowers, which does not require a mordant. Dark green and gold can also be obtained if a mordant is used.
Antirrhinum majus contains amino acids, pigments, oils, anthocyanidins, flavonols, flavones, aurones, flavanones, cinnamic acids, and a variety of other compounds. A 2024 comparative study using HPLC identified the following compounds in the herb and flowers: 15 chemical compounds, including sugars (glucose and fructose), free amino acids (phenylalanine, tryptophan), flavonoids (auronolin, quercetin-3-galactoside, quercetin-3-arabinofuranoside, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, apigenin 7,4′-diglucuronide, luteolin 7-glucuronide), carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene), chalcononaringenin 4′-glucoside, cyanidin, and antirrhinoside.
The flavonoid class is among the most extensively studied constituent groups in A. majus. Specific compounds identified from the flowers include flavones such as apigenin 7,4′-diglucuronide, luteolin 7-glucuronide, chrysoeriol 7-glucuronide, kaempferol 3-glucoside, and kaempferol 3,7-diglucoside. The chemical effects of the three color factors P, M, and Y in Antirrhinum majus have been studied with respect to the aglycones of the flavone, flavonol, aurone, and anthocyanin glycosides present in the known homozygous color types. The M factor controls the oxidation state of the C6(B)-ring in the flavones, flavonols, and anthocyanidins: quercetin, apigenin, luteolin, and cyanidin are formed in the presence of M; kaempferol, apigenin, and pelargonidin in its absence.
Three chalcones were discovered in A. majus yellow flowers, two of which were identified as chalcononaringenin 4′-glucoside and 3,4,2′,4′,6′-pentahydroxychalcone 4′-glucoside. Aurones are a distinctive subclass of flavonoids that contribute to the yellow pigmentation of the flowers. The oxidation state of the B ring of the aurone pigment is not controlled by the M factor: aureusidin glycosides are present in both M- and mm flowers.
A. majus plants contain four major iridoid compounds: antirrhinoside, antirrhide, 5-glucosyl-antirrhinoside, and linarioside. These iridoids exhibit marked seasonal and diurnal variation. The content of the four iridoids found in Antirrhinum majus cultivars varied seasonally and diurnally. The seasonal variation in total iridoid content revealed a distinct bimodal distribution, with high total values (around 100 mg/g dry matter) early and late in the season, and a very low total iridoid content coinciding with the onset of flowering at the beginning of August.
Quantitatively, total iridoids in Antirrhinum majus showed significant seasonal variation. The total iridoid content ranged from 9.16 to 107.98 mg/g dry weight. The amounts of antirrhinoside, antirrhide, 5-Glc-antirrhinoside, and linarioside also varied. Their percentages were 69.87–93.33%, 2.57–19.84%, 1.61–14.19%, and 0.00–2.97%, respectively.
Two iridoid glucosides isolated from leaves of Antirrhinum majus L. were identified as the known compounds antirrhinoside and antirrhide. The iridoid glucoside, antirrhinoside, is constitutively distributed throughout Antirrhinum majus L. in a manner consistent with its possible role as an allelochemical.
The lipid classes, fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols of snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) seed oil were determined. A. majus seeds are a good source of oil (12.3%). Linoleic and oleic acids accounted for 88% of the total fatty acids. Snapdragon seed oil is characterized by a relatively high amount of phytosterols, wherein the sterol marker was β-sitosterol. All tocopherol isomers were present, wherein γ-tocopherol constituted 81% of the total tocopherol content followed by β-tocopherol (ca. 14.3%).
Snapdragon blooms have a relatively simple floral smell made up of volatile chemical components (VOCs). Myrcene, (E)-beta-ocimene, and methyl benzoate are among the major volatiles identified. Monoterpenes were abundant in Antirrhinum majus.
The plant's chemical composition includes a significant number of bioactive compounds: amino acids, sugars, flavonoids, such as anthocyanidins, aurones, chalcones, and terpenoid compounds (iridoids, carotenoids). Snapdragon flowers contain a diverse range of organic and inorganic metabolites and nutrients that are beneficial to human health, including mineral elements, anthocyanins, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, fatty acids, nitrogen-containing compounds, and organosulfur compounds.
Scientific interest in Antirrhinum majus has increased in recent years, particularly regarding its secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins. In vitro studies have demonstrated that these bioactive compounds possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, which may support the traditional uses of the plant. Some laboratory investigations have shown that snapdragon extracts can scavenge free radicals and reduce markers of inflammation in cell cultures.
Regarding seed oil, the radical scavenging activity (RSA) toward 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals and galvinoxyl radicals of A. majus oil were higher than those of extra virgin olive oil. It was found to protect plasmid pBR322 DNA from H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage, indicating that the plant has antioxidant properties.
Due to the presence of flavonoids, anthocyanidins, aurones, chalcones, iridoids, and carotenoids, the plant exhibits anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, which have been empirically confirmed. The traditional description of the leaves and flowers as "antiphlogistic" (anti-inflammatory) aligns with this phytochemical profile, with the flavonoid and phenolic components generally attributed to this effect in the scientific literature, though direct mechanistic studies in A. majus specifically remain limited.
Cold maceration of A. majus fresh aerial parts gave higher flavonoid and phenolic content contributing to its antimicrobial properties. These flavonoids and phenolic compounds are predicted to have a crucial role in inhibiting fungal sterol 14-demethylase, and bacterial dihydropteroate synthase and gyrase B subunit proteins.
Cell cycle analysis and Annexin V staining assay revealed that snapdragon flower extract (SFE) caused cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis, indicating the growth inhibition by SFE is attributed to its G2/M cell cycle-arresting and apoptosis-inducing activities. SFE dose-dependently enhanced generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential in H1299 cells but had no effect on intracellular ROS levels in HCT116 cells, suggesting that the type of apoptosis induced by SFE in H1299 cells is different to that in HCT116 cells.
Recent studies showed that Antirrhinum majus possessed antimicrobial, insecticidal, cytotoxic, antioxidant, central and peripheral nervous system effects, and many other biological activities.
A 2022 study published in a peer-reviewed journal and indexed in PubMed assessed the antimicrobial activity of A. majus aerial parts. The researchers assessed the impact of A. majus's sample preparation and extraction methods on the plant-aerial parts' phytochemical contents and antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, the microbial targets of the extracts' secondary metabolites were inspected using molecular docking simulations. The leaves and flowers were prepared as fresh and air-dried samples, then extracted using cold maceration and hot reflux, respectively. Extracts with the best phytochemical profiles were selected to test their antimicrobial activities against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. Results suggested that cold maceration of A. majus fresh aerial parts gave higher flavonoid and phenolic content contributing to its antimicrobial properties.
Evidence strength: Preliminary. All evidence is in vitro and computational (molecular docking). No human or animal clinical studies on antimicrobial efficacy have been published.
Multiple laboratory studies have evaluated the antioxidant capacity of A. majus extracts and seed oil. The radical scavenging activity (RSA) of A. majus oil against DPPH radicals and galvinoxyl radicals was higher than that of extra virgin olive oil. Absolute methanol extract and its fractions from the snapdragon plant were also tested for antioxidant activity, with the presence of total phenolics, IC₅₀, and percent inhibition in linoleic acid oxidation all assessed.
Snapdragon flowers contain a diverse range of organic and inorganic metabolites beneficial to human health, and snapdragon has gradually been adopted both for its edible flowers (petal and seed oil) and as an ornamental plant.
Evidence strength: Preliminary in vitro only. No controlled human trials have evaluated antioxidant effects of A. majus as a supplement in vivo.
A 2020 study published in Food Science & Nutrition (PMC7684585) by Seo et al. at Chungbuk National University, Korea, examined the anticancer activity of snapdragon flower extract at the cell line level:
Evidence strength: Preliminary in vitro only. These findings are cell-line data only and cannot be extrapolated to clinical outcomes in humans. No animal or human studies on the anticancer effects of A. majus have been published.
Some in vitro studies suggest that snapdragon extracts exhibit mild antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects, providing a rationale for their traditional uses. Due to the presence of flavonoids, anthocyanidins, aurones, chalcones, iridoids, and carotenoids, the plant exhibits anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties, which have been empirically confirmed.
Evidence strength: Weak. The evidence remains at the in vitro and empirical traditional-use level. No controlled clinical trials in humans evaluating anti-inflammatory or wound-healing outcomes have been published for A. majus.
It was traditionally used as a diuretic, though there is a lack of large-scale clinical trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of snapdragon in humans. Most current evidence is based on laboratory or animal models, and more rigorous human studies are needed to validate its health benefits.
Evidence strength: Traditional use only. No controlled scientific evidence supports diuretic efficacy in humans.
The iridoid antirrhinoside has been studied for its ecological and insecticidal role. To address questions about the insecticidal role of antirrhinoside, two generalist herbivores, Lymantria dispar L. (gypsy moth) and Trichoplusia ni Hübner (cabbage looper), were chosen for feeding trials on excised whole leaves of A. majus and in artificial diet assays. In leaf excision feeding trials, fourth instar gypsy moth rejected, without sampling, the leaves of A. majus regardless of what node the leaf was excised from. In diet feeding assays, the growth of gypsy moth and cabbage looper were not inhibited by methanol extracts, iridoid fractions, or pure antirrhinoside at concentrations of 0.6% in diet, but cabbage looper growth was enhanced. At an antirrhinoside concentration of 3.3% in diet, gypsy moth growth was reduced, whereas cabbage looper growth again increased significantly relative to the control. It is likely that antirrhinoside functions as defense against herbivory for one generalist insect herbivore but also, at low concentrations, enhances the growth of another.
Evidence strength: Preliminary. Results were mixed depending on insect species; the practical implications for human health or pest management are not established.
The flowers are among the most popular edible flowers and frequently introduced in different preparations of foods and drinks, such as salads, desserts, soups, teas, and liquors, for decorative and flavor-enhancing purposes. A 2018 study published in Food Chemistry by González-Barrio et al. (Food Chem. 252:373–380) characterized the snapdragon flower alongside pansy as new sources of bioactive compounds. Snapdragon flowers contain a diverse range of organic and inorganic metabolites and nutrients beneficial to human health, including mineral elements, anthocyanins, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, fatty acids, and nitrogen-containing compounds.
Evidence strength: Preliminary nutritional characterization. The nutritional data confirm the presence of bioactive compounds but do not establish clinical health outcomes from consuming the flower in typical culinary quantities.
No standardized dosage of snapdragon has been established in any pharmacopeia or regulatory monograph. The following dosages appear strictly as reported in specific published studies:
Although the plant does not play a significant role in official pharmacognosy today, no formally established therapeutic dose range appears in any governmental health body database (NIH, WHO, EMA, EFSA) as of the current scientific literature.
There is a lack of large-scale clinical trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of snapdragon in humans. Most current evidence is based on laboratory or animal models. Despite promising laboratory findings, clinical validation in human subjects remains limited.
Consuming the plant in large quantities, especially by those sensitive to bitter substances, might cause mild digestive upset. The plant's inherent bitterness, contributed largely by its iridoid content, may limit large-scale oral consumption.
Snapdragons can taste bland to bitter depending on type, colour, and soil conditions. Although edible, adding only a few in a salad is best.
No peer-reviewed or government-level documentation of herb-drug interactions for Antirrhinum majus was identified in the available literature. No known contraindications or adverse interactions are reported in the Plants For A Future database.
In diet feeding assays, the growth of gypsy moth and cabbage looper were not inhibited by methanol extracts, iridoid fractions, or pure antirrhinoside at concentrations of 0.6% in diet, but cabbage looper growth was enhanced, illustrating that biological effects of isolated iridoids are highly species- and concentration-dependent. These observations are from insect feeding studies and cannot be directly extrapolated to human biology.
Seeds of A. majus are a rich source of fixed oil used as an alternative to olive oil in cooking and diet, with an abundance of neutral lipids, glycolipids, and phospholipids. The diverse potential uses of A. majus oil may make this plant into significant industrial importance, though no formal toxicological evaluation of the seed oil for human consumption appears in the indexed literature.
Scientific investigation into snapdragon's nutritional and therapeutic benefits is still emerging. Significant qualitative differences between the herb and flowers, as well as between different varieties, were not detected in comparative chemical analyses. Therefore, for further research and the development of medicinal products, the use of raw materials from both studied varieties of garden snapdragons can be considered. All pharmacological activities demonstrated to date derive from in vitro and, to a lesser extent, preclinical investigations. No human clinical trials establishing therapeutic dose, efficacy, or safety profile have been published in peer-reviewed literature.
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Multiple laboratory studies have demonstrated high antioxidant activity in A. majus extracts and seed oil, including DPPH radical scavenging activity exceeding that of extra virgin olive oil, strong total phenolic content, and H2O2-protective effects on DNA. The antioxidant activity has been directly linked to the plant's wound-healing and anti-inflammatory effects in experimental models.
Laboratory evidence shows that A. majus extract suppresses key mediators of inflammation in macrophage cell models, including iNOS, COX-2, nitric oxide, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. This in vitro scientific evidence is supported by traditional use as an antiphlogistic. No human clinical trials have been conducted.
An in vivo animal study (MDPI, Pharmacognosy Magazine, 2018) demonstrated that a 5% w/w ointment of A. majus flower extract significantly outperformed a standard wound-healing ointment (MEBO) in promoting wound closure and increasing hydroxyproline content in Wistar albino rats. The effect was linked to the flowers' high phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Traditional use as a wound poultice is also well-documented.
In European folk medicine, snapdragon flowers were prepared as poultices and infusions believed to treat inflammatory skin conditions including abscesses, drawing on the plant's mild astringent and anti-inflammatory properties. This use is documented in traditional herbalism but has not been validated in clinical trials. No human or animal studies specifically targeting abscesses have been published.
Snapdragon's fresh juice and floral extracts were traditionally applied topically to minor burns and scalds in European folk medicine, valued for reputed cooling, soothing, and anti-inflammatory effects. This use is recorded across multiple herbalism sources but lacks clinical trial evidence. The in vitro anti-inflammatory and antioxidant profile of A. majus provides a plausible phytochemical rationale.
A well-documented traditional use of snapdragon is the preparation of a decoction from dried leaves and flowers to lower body temperature in fever. This application appears consistently in ethnobotanical records. No clinical or pharmacological studies have evaluated the antipyretic activity of A. majus.
European folk medicine records the use of snapdragon poultices and infusions to treat hemorrhoids, attributed to the plant's mild astringent and anti-inflammatory effects. The traditional use is documented in multiple herbalism and pharmacological review sources. The 2018 in vivo wound-healing study specifically cited hemorrhoids as part of the traditional context motivating the research.
Snapdragon extracts have been traditionally applied topically to minor rashes, skin irritations, and insect bites in European folk medicine, leveraging the plant's anti-inflammatory and soothing properties. A herbal gel formulation of A. majus was tested in a published study for anti-acne activity, which relates tangentially to inflammatory skin rashes.
The use of snapdragon leaves and flowers as poultices applied to ulcers is one of the most consistently recorded traditional applications of this plant, appearing in Grieve's A Modern Herbal and multiple pharmacological reviews. The plant's antiphlogistic and resolvent properties were cited as the rationale. No clinical studies have been conducted.
Snapdragon has been traditionally employed as a diuretic in multiple folk medicine traditions, with the whole-plant decoction used to promote urinary flow. This use is documented across European, Iraqi, and Asian ethnobotanical records. No clinical trials have evaluated this application.
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