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Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.): A Comprehensive Reference Article

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical and Scientific Names

Rubus L. is one of the most species-rich genera in the Rosaceae family, but only a few species have been used as medicinal herbs. The species of primary medicinal and commercial interest is Rubus idaeus L., commonly known as the red raspberry or European red raspberry. It is said the Greek Olympian gods could be found collecting the ripe berries around Mount Ida, hence the name Rubus idaeus, which means "bramble of Ida" in Latin. Rubus idaeus is a perennial shrub in the Rosaceae (rose) family, valued both for its sweet red fruits and its medicinal leaves. Native to Europe and northern Asia, and now cultivated worldwide, raspberry has long been utilized in herbal medicine.

Common Names and Synonyms

The plant is widely known as red raspberry, European red raspberry, or simply raspberry. Raspberry leaf is the common name for the leaf of Rubus idaeus L. In traditional Chinese medicine, the immature fruit of related species is referred to as Fupenzi. Fupenzi, which is commonly composed of fruits of Rubus idaeus, is one of the Chinese raspberry species. Fupenzi means "upside-down bowl," which may refer to the shape of an overturned raspberry fruit, or an overturned chamber pot, because of the plant's enuretic effects.

Plant Parts Used and Preparation Forms

Multiple parts of the raspberry plant are employed for medicinal or nutritional purposes. The primary plant materials are:

• Leaves (Rubi idaei folium): The HMPC conclusions cover raspberry leaf preparations which are obtained by drying and comminuting (reducing into tiny pieces) the leaves and as dry extracts. The leaves impart some of their constituents to water, giving the infusion an odour and flavour somewhat similar to that of some kinds of black tea.
• Fruit: Consumed fresh, freeze-dried, juiced, or concentrated into powders and extracts. Polyphenol-enriched red raspberry extracts standardized to anthocyanin and ellagitannin content are used in research.
• Seed Oil: Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) seed oil (RSO) is considered a source of high-value bioactive compounds including fatty acids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids, flavonoids, phytosterols, antioxidants, monoterpenes and many other chemical constituents.
• Shoots: The young shoots of Rubus idaeus are traditionally used as a herbal remedy in common cold, fever, and flu-like infections.

A monograph on Raspberry leaf (ref. 2950) was newly included in the European Pharmacopoeia (2020). The content is expressed in tannins expressed as pyrogallol (minimum 3%).

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient Mediterranean Traditions

The stems and leaves of Rubus species were immersed into white wine for use as an astringent poultice for wound healing and for difficulties during childbirth, as suggested by Hippocrates. The species name idaeus itself reflects ancient Greek association with the plant around Mount Ida.

European Folk and Herbal Medicine

Traditional European medicine employed raspberry leaf for centuries. Medieval herbalists documented its use in written formularies, and rural communities throughout Britain, Ireland, and Continental Europe maintained strong traditions of raspberry leaf tea consumption. The herb was particularly associated with women's health support and was commonly recommended by midwives and herbalists.

European folk tradition valued raspberry leaf as a nutritive herb, meaning it was consumed not just for specific complaints but as a general health tonic. The leaves were often included in pregnancy teas, postpartum recovery formulas, and blends designed to support women during menstruation.

The astringent properties of its leaves, rich in tannins, made them a remedy for diarrhea and wounds. Colonial herbalists used raspberry leaf gargles for sore throats and mouth ulcers, and recommended leaf infusions to "fasten the bowels" in dysentery. European herbal compendia from the 18th and 19th centuries list raspberry preserves as soothing for fevers, and raspberry vinegar as a cordial for invalids.

Native American Traditions

Indigenous North American tribes, including the Cherokee and Chippewa, used raspberry leaf preparations for gastrointestinal complaints, fever management, and as a general health tonic, applications that predated European contact and colonial herbal knowledge exchange.

Australian Aboriginal Tradition

In Australia, aboriginal people used a decoction of raspberry leaves as a traditional treatment for diarrhea.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese raspberries are considered to have sweet and warm properties, which are associated with the liver and kidney meridians. They function to tonify and stabilize the kidneys to preserve vital energy and treat cases of liver and kidney deficiency. Clinically, Rubus idaeus and its preparations are usually used for treating diseases such as enuresis, frequent urination, impotence, nocturnal emission, and opacity of the cornea.

Russian Folk Medicine

Even today, Russians swear by a hot cup of tea laced with raspberry jam as a cure for the common cold — a tradition handed down through generations that combines flavor with folk medicine.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overall Phytochemical Diversity

Approximately 194 compounds have been isolated from Rubus idaeus, which is rich in phenols, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and fatty acids.

Phenolic Compounds in the Fruit

The raspberry fruit contains a number of phenolic compounds, the predominant being anthocyanins and ellagitannins, accompanied by significantly lower concentrations of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and flavan-3-ols.

Ellagitannins are a group of hydrolysable tannins distinctive for the family Rosaceae. The main ellagitannin present in Rubus species is sanguiin H-6, which is accompanied by lambertianin C and other ellagitannins in small quantities.

Red raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) are unique berries with a rich history and nutrient and bioactive composition. They possess several essential micronutrients, dietary fibers, and polyphenolic components, especially ellagitannins and anthocyanins, the latter of which give them their distinctive red coloring.

Phenolic Compounds in the Leaf

Raspberry leaves are a source of tannins (9.88 g%), flavonoids (0.50 g%), phenolcarboxylic acids (1.13 g%), and sterols (0.89 g%). A total of 16 flavonoids, including 4 quercetin derivatives, 2 luteolin derivatives, 8 kaempferol derivatives, and 2 isorhamnetin derivatives, have been identified in raspberry leaves. Ellagitannins, as well as some flavonoids, have also been detected in raspberry leaves.

The shoots of R. idaeus stand out as a valuable source of sanguiin H-6 and ellagic acid and possess a number of biological properties including antioxidative, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activity.

A total of 37 polyphenolic compounds were identified in a raspberry leaf infusion using LC–MS, following a 5-minute hot water extraction. The contents of ellagitannins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids were 38 mg, 7 mg, and 4 mg per 10 g of raspberry leaf, respectively, contributing to a total polyphenol content of 50 mg per 10 g.

Seed Oil Composition

The content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in red raspberry seed oil was reported at approximately 85%, of which (as a percentage of total fatty acids) 54% was linoleic acid and 32% was α-linolenic acid. In raspberry seed oil there are also polyphenol compounds (2.65 mg/100 g), phytosterols (5.38 mg/g), including campesterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, avenasterol, and cytrostadienol; and carotenoids including zeaxanthin, β-carotene, lutein, and cryptoxanthin. Raspberry seed oil also contains large amounts of vitamin E (301.9 mg/100 g); tocopherols (295.19 mg/100 g), including α-tocopherol (71 mg/100 g), γ-tocopherol (272 mg/100 g), and δ-tocopherol (17.4 mg/100 g); and tocotrienols (6.73 mg/100 g).

Cold-pressed red raspberry seed oil contains significant levels of alpha-linolenic acid ranging from 19.6 to 32.4 g per 100 g of oil, along with a low ratio of n-6/n-3 fatty acids (1.64–3.99).

Mechanisms of Action

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain raspberry's biological effects:

• Antioxidant activity: Raspberries (Rubus idaeus) are a valuable source of bioactive compounds and are considered potent antioxidants. The anti-reactive species action is largely ascribed to the high content of ellagitannins and anthocyanins.
• Anti-inflammatory mechanisms: Modulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukins (ILs), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) expression by raspberry-type berries has been reported. All analyzed samples of raspberry possess anti-inflammatory potential, expressed as the ability to inhibit lipoxygenase (LOX) and COX-2, which are enzymes involved in the inflammatory process.
• Smooth muscle effects: Triterpenoids isolated from raspberry leaves have been identified as smooth muscle relaxants, which has been proposed as one mechanism underlying the traditional use of raspberry leaf in labor.
• Enzyme inhibition (glycemic effects): Co-ingestion of raspberry leaf tea with sucrose significantly reduced early postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses, suggesting ellagic-acid-rich polyphenols mediate enzyme inhibition (e.g., α-glucosidase/β-fructofuranosidase).
• Urolithin production: Urolithins, which are produced by gut bacteria from ellagitannins and ellagic acid found in foods like berries and nuts, are better absorbed by the body and may be responsible for many of the health benefits associated with these foods.
• Mitophagy activation: Urolithin A, a stimulator of mitophagy, has been proposed as a therapy to improve skeletal muscle function via its beneficial effect on mitochondrial health.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Pregnancy, Labor, and Reproductive Health

The use of raspberry leaf to facilitate labor is one of the most extensively studied yet controversial areas of raspberry research.

Key clinical studies:

A retrospective observational study examined the safety and efficacy of raspberry leaf products consumed by mothers during pregnancy, by comparison with a group of mothers who did not. Subjects were women who birthed their babies at Westmead Hospital between January 1998 and July 1998. The sample consisted of 108 mothers; 57 (52.8%) consumed raspberry leaf products while 51 (47.2%) were in the control group. The findings suggested that the raspberry leaf herb can be consumed by women during their pregnancy for the purpose for which it is taken — to shorten labor — with no identified side effects for the women or their babies.

A follow-up randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted by the same research team involving 192 women from 32 weeks of pregnancy to labour, limiting the cohort to primiparous women. The women treated were given 1.2 g of raspberry leaf twice daily and the outcomes of interest included induction of labour, augmentation of labour, length of labour, and mode of birth. After excluding women who had labours induced, only 70 were included in analyses examining augmentation of labour. No adverse outcomes were reported, and no statistically significant differences were found between groups. Women in the raspberry leaf group had a shorter second stage of labour (by 9.6 minutes), which is clinically meaningful.

A 2024 prospective observational study published in BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies found that raspberry leaf was strongly predictive of women not having their labours medically augmented, but the results cannot be relied on or generalised to the wider population of pregnant women.

Evidence strength and regulatory assessment: Results from in vivo and in vitro studies are variable and do not offer strong evidence to support the proposed reasons for giving this supplement. The available clinical studies do not meet the criteria for "well-established medicinal use," so the treatment should not be recommended for use during pregnancy. Clinical studies have not found a higher incidence of bad outcomes with raspberry leaf treatment, but only 153 women have been included in two studies and the use was for a short duration. The efficacy of raspberry leaf is not convincingly documented. A randomised controlled trial is urgently needed to provide women and healthcare providers with robust evidence on which to base practice.

4.2 Glycemic Control and Diabetes-Related Outcomes

A 2025 randomised crossover study (published in Nutrients) was the first clinical study to examine the metabolic effects of raspberry leaf (RL) tea in healthy adults. In this study, 22 healthy adults (12 males, 10 females) consumed 50 g of glucose or sucrose with or without 10 g of RL tea in four separate sessions. When RL tea was consumed with sucrose, postprandial blood glucose levels were significantly reduced at 15 and 30 minutes by 1.19 ± 0.88 mmol/L (25.59% reduction, p = 0.001) and 2.03 ± 1.05 mmol/L (43.57% reduction, p = 0.0004), respectively. Insulin concentrations were also significantly lower at 15 min (113.90 ± 59.58 pmol/L, p = 0.019), 30 min (161.76 ± 91.96 pmol/L, p = 0.0008), and 60 min (139.44 ± 75.96 pmol/L, p = 0.025). No significant differences were observed with glucose ingestion. This study provides the first clinical evidence that RL tea can blunt early postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses to sucrose in healthy individuals.

The proposed mechanism is inhibition of sucrase (β-fructofuranosidase) and α-glucosidase, enzymes that hydrolyze sucrose in the intestinal brush border. No significant effects were observed when RL tea was consumed with glucose, indicating a substrate-specific effect.

A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the red raspberry fruit also examined glycemia-related outcomes. While reductions in inflammation (hsCRP, p = 0.01) and a trend in insulin resistance (HOMA-IR, p = 0.0584) were observed, anthocyanin-derived metabolites showed non-significant increases.

Evidence strength: The glycemic evidence for the leaf is preliminary and based on a single small crossover trial in healthy adults. Larger trials in metabolically impaired populations are needed.

4.3 Cardiovascular Health and Lipid Profile

Research into the effects of raspberry on blood pressure and lipid profiles is inconclusive. A meta-analysis aimed to determine whether raspberry has beneficial effects in clinical practice regarding blood pressure and lipid profiles, with a systematic literature search up to September 2023 completed in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science. Eleven randomized controlled trials (with 13 arms) were eligible for this meta-analysis. Raspberry bioactive compounds like polyphenols, anthocyanins, and dietary fiber have been proposed to impact lipid metabolism, with the potential to improve lipid profile through modulating enzymes involved in lipid digestion, absorption, and synthesis.

A key downstream pathway involves urolithin A. Urolithin A has been shown to improve muscle strength, exercise performance, and biomarkers of mitochondrial health in a randomized trial in middle-aged adults. Urolithin A reduced levels of C16 and C18 ceramides — two species that are part of a clinically validated ceramide score whose accumulation in the blood is indicative of a higher risk for future cardiovascular diseases.

Evidence strength: In vitro and in vivo studies have revealed various mechanisms through which anthocyanins and ellagitannins (via ellagic acid or their urolithin metabolites) and red raspberry extracts could reduce the risk of or reverse metabolically associated pathophysiologies, but large-scale human cardiovascular outcome trials specific to raspberry are lacking.

4.4 Anti-Inflammatory and Musculoskeletal Effects

The red raspberry fruit contains bioactive polyphenols including anthocyanins and ellagitannins with reported anti-inflammatory properties. A polyphenolic-enriched red raspberry extract (RRE), standardized to total polyphenol, anthocyanin, and ellagitannin contents, was investigated for cartilage protecting and anti-inflammatory effects using an in vitro bovine nasal explant cell culture model and an in vivo adjuvant-induced arthritis rat model. The RRE contained 20% total polyphenols (as gallic acid equivalents), 5% anthocyanins (as cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents), and 9.25% ellagitannins (as ellagic acid equivalents). On treatment with RRE (50 μg/mL), there was a decrease in the rate of degradation of both proteoglycan and type II collagen in the in vitro model.

Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory effects are well-documented in vitro and in animal models. Human clinical evidence specific to raspberry for arthritis or inflammation is limited.

4.5 Muscle Health, Aging, and Mitochondrial Function

A major area of growing research involves the gut-derived metabolite urolithin A, produced from raspberry ellagitannins. A randomized clinical trial evaluates the improvement in the 6-minute walk distance test and in leg and hand muscle endurance after use of urolithin A in patients aged 65 to 90 years. The review highlights the variability in how different individuals produce urolithins, which can affect their health outcomes, and discusses the need for further research to understand the mechanisms of action and health effects of these metabolites.

Evidence strength: Note that urolithin A research often involves synthetic or purified urolithin A supplements, not whole raspberry food sources. Not all individuals produce urolithin A from raspberry polyphenols due to variability in gut microbiome composition.

4.6 Antimicrobial Activity

The shoots of R. idaeus stand out as a valuable source of sanguiin H-6 and ellagic acid and possess a number of biological properties including antioxidative, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activity. Raspberry seed oil exerts pharmacological effects including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity.

Evidence strength: Antimicrobial effects are primarily in vitro findings and have not been demonstrated in published clinical trials specific to raspberry.

4.7 Neurological and Neuroprotective Effects

Whole red raspberry polyphenols (RRW), including ellagic acid, and their gut-derived metabolite urolithin A (UroA), attenuate inflammation and confer health benefits. Although results from recent studies indicate that polyphenols and UroA also provide neuroprotective effects, these compounds differ in their bioavailability and may therefore have unique effects on limiting neuroinflammation. In inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide and ATP stimulation, RRW and UroA suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression and regulated the JNK/c-Jun signaling pathway. UroA also reduced inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression and promoted M2 microglial polarization.

Evidence strength: Neuroprotective evidence is currently confined to in vitro cell culture models. Human clinical evidence is absent at this time.

4.8 Cancer Chemopreventive Research

Raspberry berries contain many bioactive phytochemicals with known antioxidant and anticancer activity, inhibiting cell proliferation, inflammation, and angiogenesis, and inducing apoptosis, cell differentiation, and adhesion. Their anti-cancer effects are mostly attributed to the high concentration of ellagic acid. Caution is warranted in the use of ellagic acid and ellagic acid-rich foods and supplements by cancer patients while on taxane therapy.

Evidence strength: Chemopreventive and anticancer data are predominantly preclinical (in vitro and animal studies). No controlled clinical trials have established raspberry as effective for cancer prevention or treatment in humans.

5. Body Systems Associated with Raspberry

• Reproductive / gynecological system: The most historically prominent association. Leaf preparations have been used as uterine tonics and for menstrual and obstetric support across multiple traditions.
• Gastrointestinal system: Astringent tannins have been used traditionally for diarrhea and as a digestive tonic. The high tannin content contributes to raspberry leaf's benefit as an herbal astringent, which helps to tone and tighten tissue. This action is what makes raspberry leaf a candidate herb to ease menstrual and gastrointestinal cramping and tone uterine tissues for labor. Traditional herbal practitioners have relied on this astringency to support the health of the mouth and throat, and for addressing occasional loose stool.
• Cardiometabolic system: Diet is an essential factor that affects the risk of modern-day metabolic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and Alzheimer disease. The potential ability of certain foods and their bioactive compounds to reverse or prevent the progression of the pathogenic processes that underlie these diseases has attracted research attention.
• Musculoskeletal system: Via urolithin A's mitophagy-activating effects and anti-inflammatory polyphenols.
• Renal / urinary system: In traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese raspberries are associated with the liver and kidney meridians and function to tonify and stabilize the kidneys to preserve vital energy and treat cases of liver and kidney deficiency.
• Neurological system: Emerging preclinical research on neuroprotection via raspberry polyphenols and urolithin A.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported directly from clinical and research sources and are not recommendations:

• Raspberry leaf tablet (pregnancy/labor studies): Women in the randomized double-blind trial were given 1.2 g of raspberry leaf twice daily (total 2.4 g/day) from 32 weeks of pregnancy to labour.
• Raspberry leaf tea (glycemic control study): 22 healthy adults consumed 10 g of raspberry leaf tea co-ingested with 50 g of sucrose or glucose in a randomized crossover design.
• Polyphenol-enriched red raspberry extract (arthritis animal model): The RRE used contained 20% total polyphenols (as gallic acid equivalents), 5% anthocyanins, and 9.25% ellagitannins. In vitro studies used 50 μg/mL of extract.
• Raspberry leaf tea polyphenol composition: The contents of ellagitannins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids were 38 mg, 7 mg, and 4 mg per 10 g of raspberry leaf, respectively, contributing to a total polyphenol content of 50 mg per 10 g.
• European Pharmacopoeia standard for leaf: The content is expressed in tannins expressed as pyrogallol (minimum 3%).
• Urolithin A supplementation (muscle endurance trial): A randomized clinical trial evaluated the improvement in the 6-minute walk distance test and in leg and hand muscle endurance after use of urolithin A in patients aged 65 to 90 years. (Note: these trials used purified urolithin A, not whole raspberry.)

7. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Regulatory Status and General Safety Profile

The Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) of the European Medicines Agency has issued scientific conclusions on the medicinal uses of raspberry leaf. The HMPC conclusions are taken into account by EU Member States when evaluating applications for the licensing of herbal medicines containing raspberry leaf. A search of the Eudravigilance database in August 2022 using the search terms "Rubus idaeus L.", "Rubi idaei folium," and "Raspberry leaf" found no new safety issues detected.

Use During Pregnancy

Limited documentation exists and part of it is 50 years old or older. Only the latest animal study indicates an increased risk for the unborn child; however, all the studies are small and cannot rule out negative effects on pregnancy outcome. The efficacy of raspberry leaf is not convincingly documented.

Several human toxicity studies were identified on the safety of raspberry leaf use during pregnancy. This included several case reports of adverse effects experienced by pregnant women or their newborns after taking raspberry leaf, ranging in severity from petechiae to acute liver injury.

While no safety concerns were observed in the 2024 prospective observational study, this should not be taken as evidence that raspberry leaf is safe.

CYP Enzyme Interactions

Research concluded that clinically relevant systemic CYP inhibitions could be possible for raspberry leaf, and that it might cause clinically relevant inhibition of intestinal CYP3A4. If raspberry leaf inhibits these CYPs in vivo, it may affect drugs that are metabolised by these enzymes.

Iron Absorption

Simultaneous use of iron supplementation and tannin-containing herbs (including raspberry leaf) has been noted as a potential interaction. Tannin-containing supplements may interfere with iron absorption, which should be taken into account in anemic patients.

Animal Toxicology Data

Raspberry leaf has been shown to have biophysical effects on animal and human smooth muscle including the uterus. Toxicity was demonstrated when high doses were administered intravenously or intraperitoneally in animal studies.

Interactions with Cancer Chemotherapy

Caution is warranted in the use of ellagic acid and ellagic acid-rich foods and supplements by cancer patients while on taxane therapy, based on in vitro evidence that ellagic acid can affect tubulin polymerization and drug efflux mechanisms.

Seed Oil Safety

The benefits of raspberry seed oil for external use have been extensively studied, and products are widespread and recognized by consumers in the cosmetics industry. However, there is a lack of information on raspberry seed oil as a food for consumption.

References

• ScienceDirect — Ethnopharmacology of Rubus idaeus Linnaeus: A critical review (2022)
• PubMed — Rapid Identification of Flavonoid Constituents from PTP1B Inhibitive Extract of Raspberry Leaves by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS-MS
• PMC — Chemical composition and biological activity of Rubus idaeus shoots – a traditional herbal remedy of Eastern Europe
• PMC — Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) Seed Oil: A Review
• PubMed — Chemical composition and biological activity of Rubus idaeus shoots (2014)
• PMC — Raspberry leaf (Rubus idaeus) use in pregnancy: a prospective observational study (2024)
• PubMed — Raspberry leaf — should it be recommended to pregnant women? (2009)
• PubMed — Raspberry leaf and its effect on labour: safety and efficacy (2000)
• PMC — Red Raspberries and Their Bioactive Polyphenols: Cardiometabolic and Neuronal Health Links
• PMC — Differential Effects of Whole Red Raspberry Polyphenols and Urolithin A on Neuroinflammation in BV-2 Microglia
• PMC — Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Polyphenolic-Enriched Red Raspberry Extract in an Antigen Induced Arthritis Rat Model
• PMC — Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Postulated Cytotoxic Activity of Phenolic and Anthocyanin-Rich Fractions from Polana Raspberry Fruit and Juice
• PMC — Effects of Raspberry Leaf Tea Polyphenols on Postprandial Glucose and Insulin Responses in Healthy Adults (2025)
• PMC — The effects of raspberry consumption on lipid profile and blood pressure in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis
• PMC — Effect of Urolithin A Supplementation on Muscle Endurance and Mitochondrial Health in Older Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial (JAMA Network Open, 2022)
• European Medicines Agency — Rubi idaei folium (Raspberry leaf) herbal medicinal product summary
• EMA — Final Assessment Report on Rubus idaeus L., folium
• EMA — Addendum to Assessment Report on Rubus idaeus L., folium
• UK Committee on Toxicity — Toxicity studies: Raspberry leaf tea
• UK Committee on Toxicity — Annex A: Drug-herb interactions
• PMC — Physico-Chemical Properties, Fatty Acids Profile, and Economic Properties of Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) Seed Oil, Extracted in Various Ways
• PubMed — Fatty acid composition and antioxidant properties of cold-pressed marionberry, boysenberry, red raspberry, and blueberry seed oils
• PMC — Effects of Black Raspberries and Their Ellagic Acid and Anthocyanin Constituents on Taxane Chemotherapy of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Cells
• PMC — Prebiotics Together with Raspberry Polyphenolic Extract Mitigate the Development of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Diseases in Zucker Rats
• Springer — Anti-diabetic potential of Rubus species: linking conventional knowledge with scientific developments (2024)
• ClinicalTrials.gov — The Effects of Raspberry Leaf Tea on Blood Glucose Control (NCT06385626)