Convolvulus pluricaulis

Convolvulus pluricaulis (Shankhpushpi): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Convolvulus prostratus Forssk., a nootropic herb used in traditional medicinal systems, is also frequently known by its taxonomic synonym Convolvulus pluricaulis. C. microphyllus Sieb. and C. prostratus Forsk. are two known synonyms of C. pluricaulis. The species was first formally described by the Swiss botanist Jacques Denys Choisy, and the full accepted authority designation is Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy.

In the Indian medicinal system — Ayurveda — it is named Shankhpushpi. Shankhpushpi is a Sanskrit word that means "the plant with flowers shaped like a conch." Convolvulus is a genus of the Convolvulaceae family.

Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy is a perennial herb that resembles morning glory. Commonly known as Shankhpushpi (also known as Bindweed), it is a well-reputed Medhya herb commonly found in southern India and Burma, with stems 10–40 cm long and small (5 mm) blue-colored flowers. A pharmacognostical study of this plant shows that it is a herb, its stem and leaves are hairy; moreover, it has two types of stomata — anisocytic and paracytic.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (A.P.I.), an authoritative guide for Ayurvedic medicine, has classified C. pluricaulis as the source plant for Shankhpushpi. By looking at ancient morphological descriptions in ancient texts, however, the following botanicals have all been considered as its source: Canscora decussata Schult, Clitoria ternatea Linn, Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy, and Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. This botanical ambiguity is practically significant, as products labeled "Shankhpushpi" in different regions of India may be derived from different species.

Common Names by Region

• Regional and vernacular synonyms include Shyamakranta, Syamakranta, Visnukranta, Speedwheel, Sankhaholi, Vishnukarandi, Vishnukranti, Krsnakranti, Shankavall, Vishnukrantha, Krishna-enkranti, and Erravishnukaraantha.

Common Dosage Forms and Preparations

• The Charaka Samhita, the ancient foundational text of Ayurveda, described the use of paste (kalka) as Medhya Rasayana.
• The whole herb is used medicinally in the form of decoction with cumin and milk in fever, nervous debility, and loss of memory.
• Convolvulus pluricaulis is mentioned in the treatment of diseased conditions of the brain in Ayurveda in different formulations such as powder (churna), ghrita (medicated ghee), and oil.
• All parts of the herb are known to possess therapeutic benefits.

Modern commercial forms include standardized dry extracts in capsule or tablet form, loose dried whole-plant powder (churna), liquid extracts, and as a constituent of polyherbal Ayurvedic formulations such as Saraswatarishta.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (India)

Shankhpushpi is classified among the four Medhya Rasayanas by Acharya Charaka, and it is included as a main ingredient in many herbal extracts or decoction-based brain tonics and memory-boosting formulations. Notable among the Medhya Rasayanas are Mandukparni (Centella asiatica), Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis), and Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia). Acharya Charak and Acharya Susruta documented these herbs, emphasizing their roles in enhancing cognitive abilities and reducing the effects of aging on the mind. Acharya Charak mentions these plants as medhya dravya, which primarily act on the nervous system.

Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) is an extremely versatile plant, commonly prescribed as nootropic (medhya), rejuvenator, and nervine tonic in epilepsy and insanity, and it is an essential ingredient of myriad popular Ayurvedic monoherbal or polyherbal preparations.

It is used in Ayurvedic formulations for chronic cough, sleeplessness, epilepsy, hallucinations, and anxiety. Shankhpushpi is used traditionally to treat nervous debility, insomnia, fatigue, and low energy levels. The ancient texts of the Brihattrayi — comprising the Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hridaya — all contain references to this plant or its preparations. Information from Ayurvedic literature including the Brihattrayi (Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hridaya) and Nighantu (lexicon) has been used to validate the herb's therapeutic claims.

According to classical Ayurvedic properties, the plant has a bitter taste (Tikta Rasa), unctuous and sticky qualities (Snigdha and Picchila Guna), and undergoes sweet taste conversion after digestion (Madhura Vipaka).

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Convolvulus pluricaulis is a major ingredient in Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese formulae indicated for neurological conditions, namely dementia, anxiety, depression, insanity, and epilepsy.

Other Indigenous Medical Systems

C. pluricaulis is an important indigenous medicine with a long medicinal application for liver disease, epileptic disease, microbial disease, cytotoxic and viral diseases, and central nervous system (CNS) diseases in Ayurvedic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, and other indigenous medical systems.

3. Key Constituents and Phytochemistry

A chemical study of this plant led to the isolation of carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids, fatty acids, steroids, coumarins, flavonoids, and glycosides as active chemicals that bring about its biological effects.

The most thoroughly characterized classes of compounds include the following:

Alkaloids

The alkaloids identified include convolvine, convolamine, confoline, phyllabine, convolidine, convoline, convosine, subhirsine, and convolvidine, along with fatty acid and wax constituents, hydrocarbons, and aliphatic and sterol components. The plant is also a rich source of carbohydrates such as D-glucose, maltose, rhamnose, and sucrose, and alkaloids such as shankhapushpine, convolamine, and convoline.

Flavonoids

Phytochemical investigations have identified flavonoids including kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin. Kaempferol is the most frequently cited and studied of these.

Coumarins

Four coumarin compounds have been isolated and identified as umbelliferone, scopoletin, aesculetin, and scopoline. Scopoletin, a hydroxylated coumarin, is among the most pharmacologically active constituents identified in computational and in vitro studies.

Sterols and Other Phenolics

The medicinal herb has been reported to contain bioactive phytoconstituents including the alkaloid convolamine, the flavonoid kaempferol, and phenolics such as scopoletin, β-sitosterol, and ceryl alcohol.

Additional Compounds

The plant contains diverse phytochemicals including β-sitosterol, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), silane, decanoic acid, carbohydrates, vitamin E, valeric acid (pentanoic acid), cinnamic acid, squalene, linoleic acid, phthalic acid, gums, proteins, mucilages, several tropane alkaloids, flavonoids (kaempferol), and glycosides. Newly identified molecules include chromanone, campesterol, lupeol, and vitamin E precursors (trans-phytol and isophytol) in the medium polarity extract of the whole plant.

Bioavailability and Drug-Likeness

Virtual ADME screening identified five active compounds from C. pluricaulis — scopoletin, 4-hydroxycinnamic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, and ayapanin — showing drug-likeness and blood-brain barrier permeability. Growing evidence suggests neurorestorative and memory-protective potentials of these compounds.

4. Mechanisms of Action

The mechanisms through which C. pluricaulis exerts its biological effects have been studied primarily through in vitro and in silico approaches. A definitive single mechanism of action has not been established, and the pharmacology is considered multi-target.

Neurochemical Targets

In network pharmacological analysis, key compounds were found to interact with molecular targets such as prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 and 2 (PTGS1 and PTGS2), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS3), insulin receptor (INSR), heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1), acetylcholinesterase (ACHE), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARG), and monoamine oxidase A and B (MAOA and MAOB) that are associated with neuronal growth, survival, and activity.

Notably, scopoletin showed the highest binding affinity with PTGS1, NOS3, PPARG, ACHE, MAOA, MAOB, and TRKB; quercetin with PTGS2; 4-hydroxycinnamic acid with INSR; and ayapanin with HMOX1.

Administration of Convolvulus pluricaulis increased acetylcholinesterase activity in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions associated with memory function and learning abilities.

Antioxidant Activity

C. pluricaulis exhibits antioxidant potential evident by free radical scavenging activities. C. pluricaulis pretreatment inhibited H₂O₂-induced macromolecule damage such as plasmid DNA damage, AAPH-induced oxidation of bovine serum albumin, and lipid peroxidation of rat hepatic tissues. In neuroprotective studies, SHSY5Y cells treated with H₂O₂ with or without pretreatment showed protective effects.

Stress Hormone Modulation

Convolvulus pluricaulis has been reported to calm the nerves by regulating the synthesis of stress hormones (cortisol and adrenaline) in the body.

Secondary Metabolite Contributions

A wide range of secondary metabolites such as steroids, anthocyanins, flavonol glycosides, and triterpenoids have been isolated that are responsible for memory-enhancing and nootropic properties. The plant species has several active metabolites including alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids that interact with protein and neurological signaling pathways, demonstrating pharmacological effects such as anti-amnesiac, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, analgesic, antioxidant, neuroprotective, memory and learning improving, sedative-hypnotic, and anticonvulsant activity.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Cognitive Enhancement and Memory

Traditional knowledge and experimental evidence suggest that C. pluricaulis, alone or in combination, can enhance memory and protect against cognitive impairment. However, the underlying mechanisms supporting these claims remain largely unexplored.

Preclinical evidence (animal studies): In a preclinical study, the ethanolic extract of Convolvulus pluricaulis (in two doses — 100 mg and 200 mg per kg body weight) reversed scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats. A study showed that aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts of Convolvulus pluricaulis increase memory functions and learning abilities. Extracts of Convolvulus pluricaulis were found to enhance memory in Wistar rats in a dose-dependent manner, and administration for one week increased memory in aged mice.

The ethanolic extract of Convolvulus pluricaulis and its ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions were evaluated for their memory-enhancing properties in rats at two different doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg, and the drug significantly improved memory and learning.

Clinical evidence: Clinical studies of its polyherbal formulation have provided justification for the ancient claim of it being a brain tonic. Previous reports have demonstrated beneficial effects of extracts of this plant in in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's disease, and justification of its potential as an ancient brain tonic has been provided recently by clinical studies on polyherbal formulations. However, published randomized controlled trials of C. pluricaulis as a single agent in human subjects are limited, and the available clinical data pertain primarily to polyherbal preparations rather than isolated extracts of this species. Evidence of cognitive benefit in humans remains preliminary and cannot be considered conclusive.

5.2 Anxiety (Anxiolytic Activity)

Preclinical evidence: Results of psychomotor tests (actophotometer, open field, rota-rod, grip strength, hole board test, inclined plane, chimney test, elevated plus maze, light-dark model) at test doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg in mice showed CNS depressant and anti-anxiety effects. The hydroalcoholic extract from leaves of Convolvulus pluricaulis at the 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg doses demonstrated CNS depressant and anti-anxiety effects in mice models.

The plant has been found to be effective in reducing different types of stress including psychological, chemical, and traumatic.

Clinical evidence: Clinical data in humans for the anxiolytic indication are scarce and are largely confined to studies on compound Ayurvedic formulations. No adequately powered, well-controlled human clinical trial of C. pluricaulis alone for anxiety has been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.3 Antidepressant Activity

Preclinical evidence: The isolated metabolites and crude extract have exhibited a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects including antidepressant activity. Studies in mice have screened the plant for antidepressant-like activity using standard forced swim and tail suspension paradigms, with positive results reported in rodent models. The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the whole plant reduced spontaneous motor activity, potentiated pentobarbitone hypnosis and morphine analgesia, and reduced fighting responses.

Clinical evidence: Evidence in humans is absent from the peer-reviewed literature as an isolated agent. The antidepressant claim rests on preclinical rodent data and traditional use.

5.4 Anticonvulsant / Antiepileptic Activity

Convolvulus pluricaulis is a major ingredient in Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese formulae indicated for epilepsy, and experimental evidence suggests antiepileptic potential. Preclinical studies have explored anticonvulsant activity using standard pentylenetetrazol and maximal electroshock seizure models in rodents. Evidence remains at the preclinical stage; no published human clinical trials of C. pluricaulis as an antiepileptic agent have been identified.

5.5 Potential in Alzheimer's Disease

The precise mechanisms underlying the neuropharmacological effects of C. pluricaulis remain unclear. Studies have aimed at deciphering the molecular basis of neuroprotective effects of CP phytochemicals against the pathology of dementia disorders such as Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's (PD) disease.

In network analysis, compounds were found to interact with molecular targets such as prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 and 2 (PTGS1 and PTGS2), acetylcholinesterase (ACHE), and monoamine oxidase A and B (MAOA and MAOB) that are associated with neuronal growth, survival, and activity. These findings are computational (in silico) and await validation in clinical models. Evidence for human benefit in Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease is not yet established.

5.6 Hypolipidemic Activity

Recent interest in C. pluricaulis has been directed towards its role in the regulation of lipid abnormalities in hyperlipidaemic and diabetic in vivo models. A methanolic extract of CP has been demonstrated to be effective in the control of several lipid parameters in a hyperlipidaemic animal model and to possess significant hypolipidemic activity in a streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model.

The methanolic extract of Convolvulus pluricaulis had earlier shown lipid-lowering activity in a Triton-induced reversible hyperlipidemia model. A study was then designed to validate the lipid and glucose-lowering actions of C. pluricaulis methanolic extract (CPME) using Indian dietary ingredients for induction of hyperlipidemia and diabetes in experimental rats. Animals received CPME at 400 mg/kg once daily for two weeks. The study confirmed that CPME possesses significant hypolipidemic activity but fails to reverse the hyperglycaemia developed in diabetic rats. This evidence is entirely preclinical.

5.7 Antidiabetic Activity

In recent years, several researchers have pointed out the involvement of CP and other Convolvulaceae in lipidic and glucidic metabolism, particularly in the control of hyperlipidaemia and diabetic conditions. Newly identified molecules such as chromanone, campesterol, lupeol, and vitamin E precursors (trans-phytol and isophytol) have been identified in the medium polarity extract of the CP whole plant. These constituents have been identified as candidate adjuvant molecules in the regulation of glucidic and lipidic homeostasis. However, the absence of antidiabetic action with 400 mg/kg of CP extract suggests that the therapeutic dose may be different for these two indications or there may be a sheer absence of the action. All evidence is preclinical and based on animal models.

5.8 Antithyroid Activity

Studies on female mice have demonstrated that the root extract can control hyperthyroidism. This evidence is preclinical (animal-based) only.

5.9 Antimicrobial Activity

C. pluricaulis has emerged as a good source of traditional medicine for the treatment of microbial disease. In vitro and in vivo studies have explored antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anthelmintic activities of various extracts. Evidence is entirely preclinical and in vitro.

5.10 Cardiovascular / Hypotensive Activity

Preclinical studies have already shown the effectiveness of herbal preparations containing CP in the treatment of hypertension. Earlier pharmacological work documented a hypotensive effect in anesthetized animal models. All such evidence is preclinical.

5.11 Antiulcer Activity

The isolated metabolites and crude extract have exhibited in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects including antiulcer activity. Evidence is preclinical.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with C. pluricaulis

According to the ancient literature and modern experimental work, this herb has been attributed with several therapeutic properties, such as anxiolytic, neuroprotective, antioxidant, analgesic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and cardioprotective activities.

In recognition of the drug's potential to treat a wide range of conditions, including central nervous system depression, anxiolytic, tranquilizing, antidepressant, antistress, neurodegenerative, anti-amnesic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, immunomodulatory, analgesic, antifungal, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antiulcer, anticatatonic, and cardiovascular activities, the Indian Council of Medical Research has established quality standards for the drug.

• Central Nervous System: Memory, cognition, anxiety, depression, epilepsy, insanity (Unmada), and age-related neurodegenerative conditions.
• Metabolic: Lipid metabolism, blood glucose regulation (preclinical only).
• Cardiovascular: Blood pressure, lipid levels (preclinical only).
• Endocrine: Thyroid function (preclinical, animal-model only).
• Gastrointestinal: Peptic ulcer, liver protection (preclinical only).
• Infectious/Microbial: Antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral (in vitro and preclinical only).
• Immunological: Immunomodulation (preclinical only).

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are those explicitly reported in studies or classical Ayurvedic descriptions and are presented solely as a record of what has been studied or traditionally used, not as prescriptive guidance.

Dosages Reported in Preclinical Studies

• Ethanolic extract tested at 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg body weight in rats for anti-amnesic effects.
• Hydroalcoholic extract of leaves tested at 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg in mice for CNS depressant and anxiolytic effects.
• Methanolic extract (CPME) tested at 400 mg/kg once daily for two weeks for hypolipidemic and antidiabetic effects in rats.
• The root extract of Convolvulus pluricaulis at 0.4 mg/kg per day for 30 days was administered in a model of L-thyroxine-induced hyperthyroidism.

Dosages in Traditional Ayurvedic Use

• The whole herb is used as a decoction with cumin and milk in traditional preparations.

No standardized human clinical dosage for any indication has been established through adequately powered randomized controlled trials using C. pluricaulis as a single ingredient. Any dosage figures circulating in commercial contexts are not validated by peer-reviewed clinical research.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

Acute Toxicity

No acute toxicity was shown by C. pluricaulis up to a dose of 5000 mg/kg in albino Wistar rats. The whole extract of C. pluricaulis, when assessed for toxicology, generates its LD50 at 1250 (1000–1500) mg/kg. These figures are derived from animal studies and cannot be directly extrapolated to humans.

Interaction with Phenytoin — A Clinically Documented Concern

The most well-documented safety concern for C. pluricaulis is its interaction with the antiepileptic drug phenytoin. A preclinical study in rats showed that administration of a single dose of C. pluricaulis and phenytoin (oral/i.p.) decreased the antiepileptic activity of phenytoin significantly, and its multiple-dose administration further reduced antiepileptic activity. C. pluricaulis has shown the potency to reduce the antiepileptic activity of phenytoin and plasma phenytoin levels in two patients. This case-level report, published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Dandekar et al., 1992), represents one of the very few documented herb-drug interactions for this species and is clinically significant given that phenytoin has a narrow therapeutic index.

CNS Sedation

The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the whole plant reduced spontaneous motor activity, potentiated pentobarbitone hypnosis and morphine analgesia, and reduced fighting responses. This suggests potential additive sedative effects if combined with CNS depressants, benzodiazepines, or opioids, though this has not been systematically studied in humans.

Botanical Identity and Adulteration Risk

In many parts of India, plants other than C. pluricaulis — such as Evolvulus alsinoides, Clitoria ternatea, and Canscora decussata — are frequently sold under the name "Shankhpushpi." This substitution and adulteration issue means that commercially available preparations may contain one or more botanically distinct species with different phytochemical profiles, making both efficacy and safety comparisons across studies and products difficult.

Indian Council of Medical Research Quality Standards

The Indian Council of Medical Research has established quality standards for the C. pluricaulis drug in its publications. These standards address pharmacognostical and phytochemical identity markers, providing a regulatory framework within India.

Overall Evidence Characterization

Experimental evidence suggests various neuroactive potentials of CP such as memory-enhancing, neuroprotective, and antiepileptic. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the neuropharmacological effects of CP remain unclear. The vast majority of pharmacological data for Convolvulus pluricaulis is derived from in vitro cell culture experiments, animal models, computational network pharmacology analyses, and traditional use records. Robust, large-scale, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials in humans — the evidentiary standard required to substantiate specific therapeutic claims — are largely absent from the published literature for this herb as a stand-alone agent. Results from polyherbal formulation studies cannot be attributed to C. pluricaulis alone. Accordingly, all health benefit claims made for this herb must be characterized as preliminary, awaiting validation by rigorous clinical trial data.

References

• Protective Mechanisms of Nootropic Herb Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) against Dementia: Network Pharmacology and Computational Approach — PubMed (2022)
• Protective Mechanisms of Nootropic Herb Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) against Dementia — PMC Full Text
• An Update on Ayurvedic Herb Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy — PubMed (2014)
• An Update on Ayurvedic Herb Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy — PMC Full Text
• Phytochemical Profile, Pharmacological Attributes and Medicinal Properties of Convolvulus prostratus — Frontiers in Pharmacology (2020)
• Phytochemical Profile, Pharmacological Attributes and Medicinal Properties of Convolvulus prostratus — PMC Full Text
• Role of Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis) in Neurological Disorders: An Umbrella Review — ScienceDirect (2022)
• Evaluation of CNS Depressant and Anti-anxiety Activities of Leaves of Convolvulus pluricaulis — PubMed (2023)
• Herbal Drugs and Natural Bioactive Products as Potential Therapeutics: Pro-cognitives and Brain Boosters — PMC (2021)
• Effects of Medicinal Plants on Alzheimer's Disease and Memory Deficits — PMC
• Neuroprotective Herbs for the Management of Alzheimer's Disease — PMC (2021)
• Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, Macromolecule Damage and Neuroprotective Activity of Convolvulus pluricaulis — ScienceDirect (2018)
• Protective Role of Convolvulus pluricaulis on Lipid Abnormalities in High-Fat Diet with STZ-Induced Rat Model — PMC
• Protective Role of Convolvulus pluricaulis on Lipid Abnormalities — PubMed (2020)
• Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy's Extraction, Chemical Characterization and Evaluation of Effects on Glycaemic Balance — PMC (2023)
• Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy Extraction, Chemical Characterization and Glycaemic Evaluation — MDPI Nutrients (2023)
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• Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy): Validation of the Ayurvedic Therapeutic Claims — ResearchGate
• An Updated Review on Shankhpushpi as Medhya Rasayana — Journal of Ayurveda and Holistic Medicine (2021)
• A Deep Dive into Convolvulus pluricaulis and Its Pharmacological Properties — IJCRT (2024)
• Convolvulus — Overview, ScienceDirect Topics
• Medhya Rasayana: A Review of Herbal Remedies for Cognitive Enhancement — World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research
• Convolvulus pluricaulis as a Cognition Booster: Relevance to Alzheimer's Disease — IJPSDR
• Convolvulus pluricaulis Confers Antidepressant and Antioxidant Effects — PMC
• Convolvulus pluricaulis Mediates its Pharmacological Effects via SOD1, RDL, GLUT1, GABA-B-R1 and CG6293 Orthologs in Drosophila melanogaster — bioRxiv (2025)