Solanum indicum

Solanum indicum L. (Indian Nightshade / Brihati)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Names, and Morphology

Taxonomic Classification

Solanum indicum Linn. is commonly known as Indian Nightshade or Poison Berry and belongs to the family Solanaceae. The genus Solanum is the largest in the family Solanaceae, comprising about 2,000 species distributed in subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Australia, and parts of Asia, including China, India, and Japan. The formal binomial authority is Solanum indicum L., first described by Carl Linnaeus. It belongs to the Solanaceae family, which is known for including economically important species such as potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants.

Common Names and Synonyms

Solanum indicum, also recognized as Vanbhanta or Brihati, holds a significant place in traditional medicinal practices, notably Ayurveda. It is known as "Karimulli" in Tamil and "Poison Berry" in English. In English it is commonly known as poison berry. In Sanskrit it bears numerous epithets recorded across classical texts; the Bhavaprakasha Nighantu lists synonyms including Vartaki, Shudrabhantaki, Mahati, Brihati, Kuli, Hinguli, Rashritika, Simhi, Mahoshati, and Duspradharshini. A botanical synonym occasionally encountered in the literature is Solanum anguivi Lam.

Morphological Description

Solanum indicum L. (Family Solanaceae) is a thorny, heavily branched perennial undershrub that can grow up to 1 metre in height. It is extensively used in folk and traditional Indian systems of medicine. It is native to India and can be found throughout the country, primarily in warmer climates up to an elevation of 1,500 metres.

The plant is a spiny shrub that can reach a height of up to 1.5 metres. The stems are covered with spines and are usually branched. The leaves are ovate to oblong in shape, with serrated or lobed margins. They are typically dark green on the upper surface and lighter underneath. The leaves can range from 5 to 15 centimetres in length.

The plant produces small, star-shaped flowers that are either violet or white. These flowers are arranged in clusters called inflorescences. The fruit is a globular berry, which is initially green and turns yellow or orange as it matures. The fruits are round, reddish or dark yellow coloured when ripe, about 1.5–2 cm in diameter. The seeds are smooth and minutely pitted. Roots are long and pale yellowish-brown in colour.

Geographic Distribution

Solanum indicum is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Asia and Africa. It thrives in a variety of habitats, including open fields and grasslands, and is often found in disturbed areas, indicating its adaptability to various environmental conditions.

Common Preparations and Forms

The parts used medicinally across traditions include the roots, fruits, seeds, leaves, and stem. The plant is valued for its small berry-like fruits and pungent seeds, often used in decoctions or powders. In Ayurvedic practice, traditional dosage forms include:

• Powder (Churna) of the root or fruit at 1–2 grams in divided dose per day; and water decoction (Kashaya) at 50–100 ml in divided dose per day.
• Powder (Churna): 1–3 grams, mixed with honey or warm water. Decoction (Kwath): 50–100 ml, taken twice daily. Juice (Swarasa): 10–20 ml of freshly extracted juice from the leaves or roots.

The roots and berries were often ground and combined with other botanicals to create poultices for skin infections and wounds, owing to their antimicrobial effects.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (India — Ancient to Present)

Classified among the Dashamoola (group of ten roots), Brihati is described in classical texts such as the Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Ashtanga Hridaya, and various Nighantus for its diverse therapeutic benefits. Traditional practice of Ayurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millennium BC.

The Charaka Samhita lists Brihati in the Kanthya group (herbs used in throat disorders), the Hikkanigrahana group (herbs used in treating hiccups), the Shothahara (anti-inflammatory) group, and the Angamarda Prashamana (pain-relieving) group of herbs.

In both Ayurveda and Siddha medicine, it is an important ingredient of the Dasamoola group of plants. The Dasamoola is a classical formulation built on the roots of ten plants. The ten roots of this group include Gambhari (Gmelina arborea), Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum), Patala (Stereospermum suaveolens), Palaash (Butea monosperma), Agnimantha (Clerodendrum phlomidis), Shalaparni (Desmodium gangeticum), Prishnaparni (Uraria picta), Brihati (Solanum indicum), Kantakari (Solanum xanthocarpum), and Gokshura (Tribulus terrestris).

Classical texts describe the herb's Ayurvedic property profile as follows: its taste (Rasa) is Katu (pungent) and Tikta (bitter); its qualities (Guna) are Laghu (lightness) and Rooksha (dryness); its Veerya (potency) is Ushna (hot); and it balances the Kapha and Vata doshas.

The classical texts detail specific uses across multiple disease contexts. In Vatarakta (gout), milk cooked with Dasamoola decoction was described as alleviating pain immediately in the Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana (29/124) and Ashtanga Hridaya Chikitsa Sthana (22/23). Sciatica was treated with a decoction of Dasamoola added with Hingu and Puskaramula.

The Brihat Trayi (three great classical texts) mostly described it alongside Kantakari, giving rise to the name Brihati Dvaya. It is also noted as useful for Kasa (cough), and along with Kantakari its roots form part of Dasamoola.

Siddha and Unani Systems (India)

Solanum indicum holds a significant place in traditional medicine, especially within the Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani systems. Historically, its berries, roots, and leaves have been utilised for their diverse health benefits. The plant is recognised for its roots and has substantial medicinal value in traditional Indian medicine systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha.

Folk Medicine (India and Beyond)

The plant is widely used in folk and traditional Indian systems of medicine for poisonous affections, skin diseases, ulcers, difficult breathing, abdominal pain, cough, and dyspepsia. Traditional uses also encompassed respiratory disorders, asthma, cold, cough, infectious diseases, liver conditions, chronic skin conditions such as psoriasis and ringworm, inflammatory conditions, painful periods, fevers, diarrhoea, and eye diseases.

Ancient practitioners used Solanum indicum as a remedy for respiratory ailments such as asthma, cough, and bronchitis. Its expectorant and anti-inflammatory properties were harnessed to soothe sore throats and reduce chest congestion. The plant was also valued for treating digestive disturbances; its decoctions were administered to alleviate flatulence, indigestion, and abdominal discomfort.

The seeds of this plant have a traditional property to boost uterine contraction, which led to its use in dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and in difficult labour and diseases related to the post-partum period.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

The plant is rich in alkaloids, steroidal saponins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, having a diverse pharmacological and phytochemical profile. A landmark early study isolated and characterised several specific compounds directly from the whole plant:

Steroidal Alkaloids and Glycoalkaloids

Solasodine, Solasonine, Solamargine, Solanidine, and Solanine are among the active steroidal alkaloids/glycoalkaloids found in S. indicum.

• Solasodine: Known for its steroidal structure, solasodine serves as a precursor for the synthesis of various steroidal drugs. It also possesses anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. Solasodine is a water-insoluble steroidal alkaloid considered as potential raw material for steroid drug manufacture, an active agent having remarkable anticancer activity, an interesting insecticide property, and an important anti-accelerator cardiac action.
• Solamargine and Solasonine: The chemical structures of solamargine and solasonine are very similar to steroidal hormones and are therefore used as an important source for the manufacture of contraceptives and steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Both bear the same aglycone, solasodine, but differ from each other only in the nature of the trioses involved. These glycoalkaloids have been studied for their antidiabetic, antifungal, antiparasitic, antibiotic, antimicrobial, antiviral, and mostly anticancer properties.

Steroidal Saponins

Beta-sitosterol (SI-0), beta-sitosterol glucoside (SI-1), dioscin (SI-2), methyl protoprosapogenin A of dioscin (SI-3), methyl protodioscin (SI-4), and protodioscin (SI-5) were isolated and characterised from the whole plant of Solanum indicum L. (Solanaceae). Except for beta-sitosterol, these compounds had not been previously isolated from Solanum indicum L.

Phytochemical research on S. indicum also reveals indiosides A–F, isoanguivine, protodioscin, the coumarin scopoletin, the amide N-(p-trans-coumaroyl)-tyramine, and sesquiterpenes including solavetivone and solafuranone.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids identified in Solanum indicum include quercetin and kaempferol, associated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity.

Additional Phytoconstituents

The full range of phytoconstituents documented in the plant includes steroidal saponins, sesquiterpenoids, hydroxycoumarins, phenolic compounds, coumarins, coumarinolignoids, alkaloids, saponins, fatty acids, glycerides of the oil, and triterpenes, among other substances.

Additional compound groups include saponins such as diosgenin and yamogenin (associated with immunomodulatory and antimicrobial activity), and tannins such as ellagic acid and gallic acid (associated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity).

Mechanisms of Action

Previous phytochemical investigations on Solanum species led to the identification of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, sterols, and phenolic compounds. Many species present a huge range of pharmacological activities such as cytotoxicity to different tumours. The biological activities have been attributed to a number of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids, and phenols.

In mechanistic terms, the steroidal glycoalkaloids such as solamargine and solasonine are known to induce apoptosis in cancer cell lines through mitochondria-dependent pathways. They have shown significant cytotoxicity against several human cancer cell lines and skin tumours. The saponin fraction contributes mucolytic properties in respiratory contexts, while the flavonoid fraction provides antioxidant effects relevant to multiple organ systems. However, the mechanism of action or biochemical pathways of several compounds need to be elucidated in greater depth to correlate the activity of a particular phytoconstituent with a desired target.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important note on evidence quality: The large majority of published pharmacological studies on Solanum indicum are preclinical — consisting of in vitro cell-culture experiments and in vivo animal models (predominantly rats and mice). These reports are encouraging and indicate that the herb should be studied more extensively for its therapeutic benefits. Clinical trials using Solanum for a variety of combinations in different formulations should also be conducted. No large-scale, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised human clinical trials have been published in the peer-reviewed literature specifically on Solanum indicum as a standalone intervention. Claims of human trial evidence for this specific species specifically should be treated with caution in the absence of peer-reviewed confirmation.

4.1 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity

This is among the best-characterised areas of laboratory research for S. indicum. An early peer-reviewed study published in Anticancer Research (1991) by Chiang et al. conducted at the National Taiwan University directly investigated the species:

Beta-sitosterol (SI-0), beta-sitosterol glucoside (SI-1), dioscin (SI-2), methyl protoprosapogenin A of dioscin (SI-3), methyl protodioscin (SI-4), and protodioscin (SI-5) were isolated and characterised from the whole plant of Solanum indicum L. Both chloroform-soluble (SI-IV) and insoluble (SI-V) fractions of the ethanolic extract (SI-I) showed cytotoxicity on seven cancer cell lines: Colo-205 (colon), KB (nasopharynx), HeLa (uterine cervix), HA22T (hepatoma), Hep-2 (laryngeal epidermoid), GBM8401/TSGH (glioma), and H1477 (melanoma).

The purified constituents SI-2 (dioscin) and SI-4 (methyl protodioscin) showed more potent effects by DEA and MTT assay. By using the DEA and MTT assays, the purified components dioscin and methyl protodioscin were shown to have more powerful effects. In addition, dioscin, methyl protoprosapogenin A of dioscin, methyl protodioscin, and protodioscin were all found to have cytotoxic effects on cultured C6 glioma cells when tested in the PRE assay.

A separate in vitro study examined the anticancer activities of methanolic extracts of S. indicum against multiple human cancer cell lines: anticancer activities from the methanolic extracts were determined in cancer cell lines including human non-small cell lung carcinoma (H1975), prostate carcinoma (PC-3 and DU145), colorectal carcinoma (HCT116), and malignant melanoma (A375) by using the in vitro MTT cytotoxicity assay. The in vitro cytotoxicity assay revealed that S. indicum extracts showed the strongest cytotoxicity with IC50 of 8.48 µg/ml in DU145 cells and IC50 of 11.18 µg/ml in PC-3 cells. The extracts also exhibited cytotoxicity in H1975 cells with IC50 of 9.03 µg/ml.

Solavetivone, a component of S. indicum, exhibited cytotoxicity to OVCAR-3 (ovarian cancer) cells.

Saponins including Indioside H, Indioside I, and Dioscin isolated specifically from Solanum indicum have been documented to show anticancer properties.

Evidence strength: All published evidence on anticancer activity is preclinical (in vitro cell-culture studies; one in vivo glioma model). There are no human clinical trials. Results are preliminary and do not establish clinical efficacy or safety in cancer treatment.

4.2 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Studies have shown that root extracts of Solanum indicum have displayed anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities in animal models, indicating possible applications in pain management.

Brihati – Solanum indicum – is one among Dashamoola, a group of ten roots with potent anti-inflammatory activity. This group-level anti-inflammatory designation is documented in Ayurvedic classical texts where Brihati appears in the Shothahara (anti-inflammatory) group.

The aqueous extract of various parts (leaves, root, and stem) of Solanum indicum was evaluated for antioxidant, free radical (DPPH) scavenging, in vitro anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial potential. The aqueous extract of the root shows the highest content of phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and vitamin C compared with leaf and stem extracts. The high antioxidant status of the root extract was reflected in the DPPH scavenging potential and HRBC membrane stabilising assay.

Evidence strength: Evidence is from in vitro assays and animal models. The HRBC membrane stabilisation assay is a standard proxy test for anti-inflammatory activity. No human clinical trials are available.

4.3 Antimicrobial Activity

Fruit extracts of Solanum indicum have exhibited notable antimicrobial effects against several pathogenic bacteria and fungi, suggesting potential use in treating infectious diseases.

Results of antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae show that the aqueous extract of Solanum indicum stem was very effective. Though the root part is widely used, the results of the present study show that leaves and stem also have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. Especially the stem part shows the presence of compounds with potent antimicrobial property, suggesting a possible application in pharmacognosy.

Evidence strength: Antimicrobial data are exclusively from in vitro assays. No clinical evidence exists.

4.4 Antidiabetic, Antioxidant, and Antihyperlipidaemic Activity

A published study in an open-access peer-reviewed journal evaluated the antidiabetic effects of S. indicum fruit extract in a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced rat model of diabetes:

The study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-hyperlipidaemic activity of a methanolic fruit extract of Solanum indicum (SIE) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

The treatment of diabetic rats with the extract at two different doses significantly reduced the activity of serum enzymes ALT and AST compared to diabetic animals, revealing the hepatoprotective nature of the extract. The treatment of diabetic rats with the extract for 30 days significantly reduced serum triglycerides and total cholesterol and was able to modulate blood lipid abnormalities. The extract showed a beneficial effect on blood glucose level. It also restored the altered serum triglycerides, cholesterol, and enzymes such as AST and ALT.

Evidence strength: This is animal model (in vivo rodent) evidence only. Results cannot be directly extrapolated to humans without further clinical investigation.

4.5 Hepatoprotective Activity

The hepatoprotective activities of Solanum indicum hint at its potential as a functional ingredient for liver health products. The antidiabetic rat study (above) simultaneously documented liver enzyme normalisation, providing indirect hepatoprotective evidence in an animal model of chemically induced diabetes.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal model) only. No human trials.

4.6 Antioxidant Activity

Studies have shown that leaf extracts possess significant antioxidant properties, potentially due to the presence of phenolic compounds and flavonoids. The DPPH free-radical scavenging activity of aqueous root extract was documented in the phytochemical evaluation study described above. The high antioxidant status of the root extract was reflected in the DPPH scavenging potential and HRBC membrane stabilising assay.

Evidence strength: In vitro assays only. No human evidence.

4.7 Antiplasmodial Activity

Among the various pharmacological effects of the plant, antiplasmodial activity has been discovered in the plant. This refers to in vitro or animal studies examining activity against malaria parasites; no clinical trial data specific to S. indicum in malaria treatment have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

4.8 Anthelmintic Activity

Anthelmintic activity has been discovered in the plant, based on preclinical studies. No human evidence is available.

4.9 Cardiotonic and Antihypertensive Activity

The fruit of Solanum indicum Linn. has been reported traditionally to have anti-hypertensive and diuretic properties. Cardiotonic activity has also been reported in preclinical work on the plant. These designations are primarily derived from animal pharmacology and traditional documentation; no published human clinical trials have been identified.

4.10 CNS Depressant Activity

CNS depressant activity has been discovered in the plant based on animal pharmacology studies. No human evidence is available.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Solanum indicum

Respiratory System

Ancient practitioners used Solanum indicum as a remedy for respiratory ailments such as asthma, cough, and bronchitis. Its expectorant and anti-inflammatory properties were harnessed to soothe sore throats and reduce chest congestion. This is both the most extensively documented traditional use and the area most supported by phytochemical rationale (saponins contributing mucolytic properties; steroidal alkaloids with potential bronchospasmolytic effects). In the Dasamoola formulation, Brihati (Solanum indicum) contributes expectorant properties and helps clear mucus.

Gastrointestinal System

The plant was valued for treating digestive disturbances; its decoctions were administered to alleviate flatulence, indigestion, and abdominal discomfort. Classical Ayurvedic texts describe its use in diarrhoea with pain and tenesmus via Dasamoola enema formulations.

Cardiovascular System

The fruit of Solanum indicum Linn. has been reported traditionally to have anti-hypertensive and diuretic properties. Cardiotonic activity has been attributed to the plant in preclinical pharmacological reviews.

Integumentary System (Skin)

Beyond respiratory and digestive support, Solanum indicum has been employed in managing skin conditions, fever, and certain types of pain. The roots and berries were often ground and combined with other botanicals to create poultices for skin infections and wounds, owing to their antimicrobial effects.

Liver

Both the antidiabetic rat study and traditional documentation point to liver-protective activity. Treatment of diabetic rats with the extract at two different doses significantly reduced the activity of liver enzymes ALT and AST compared to diabetic animals, revealing the hepatoprotective nature of the extract.

Reproductive System

The seeds of this plant have a traditional property of boosting uterine contraction, which led to its use in dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and in difficult labour and diseases related to the post-partum period.

Musculoskeletal System

As a component of Dasamoola, Brihati is used in classical formulations for pain conditions. In Vatarakta (gout), milk cooked with Dasamoola decoction was described as alleviating pain immediately. Sciatica was classically treated with a decoction of Dasamoola added with Hingu and Puskaramula.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported

The following dosages derive from Ayurvedic traditional sources and should be understood as recorded traditional practice rather than clinically validated recommendations.

• Powder (Churna): 1–2 grams in divided dose per day, or 1–3 grams mixed with honey or warm water.
• Water decoction (Kashaya/Kwath): 50–100 ml in divided dose per day. Some traditional sources give this as 50–100 ml, taken twice daily.
• Fresh juice (Swarasa): 10–20 ml of freshly extracted juice from the leaves or roots.
• Parts used: Root and fruit are the primary parts used.

In the published in vivo antidiabetic rat study, the investigation employed a methanolic fruit extract of S. indicum in a streptozotocin-induced model over 30 days. For acute toxicity evaluation in rodent studies, a single oral dose of 5,000 mg/kg of plant extract was administered to 60-day-old female albino Wistar rats. These are animal study doses and are not applicable to human use.

7. Safety Considerations

Preclinical Toxicology

A study was undertaken to evaluate the toxicological potential of S. indicum fruits aqueous extract through acute and sub-acute toxicity tests in rats. For acute toxicity evaluation, a single oral dose of 5,000 mg/kg of the plant extract was administered in 60-day-old female albino Wistar rats. The animals were then observed for 14 days.

At the end of the experiment, biochemical and hematological parameters as well as histological analysis of organs (liver, kidneys, and spleen) were undertaken. Single oral administration of 5,000 mg/kg dose of the fruit plant aqueous extract produced no mortality or signs of toxicity.

Sub-acute toxicity studies were conducted with 50 adult rats of both sexes that orally received increasing doses of the plant extract over 28 days. Their body weight and food intake were collected weekly. These results are derived from rodent acute and sub-acute models and cannot be directly applied to determine human safety thresholds.

Glycoalkaloid Content

Solanum indicum contains steroidal glycoalkaloids including solasonine and solamargine. The chemical structures of solamargine and solasonine are very similar to steroidal hormones. Glycoalkaloids as a chemical class can produce toxic effects at sufficient doses; however, no human toxicity data specific to this species have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. The common name "poison berry" reflects historical awareness of potential adverse effects from the raw fruit.

Uterotonic Considerations

The seeds of this plant have a property of boosting uterine contraction, which has made their use traditional in dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and difficult labour. This uterotonic designation, derived from traditional sources, implies a potential concern regarding use in pregnancy. No clinical data quantifying this risk are available in the peer-reviewed literature.

Species Confusion and Substitution

A significant practical concern in both traditional and commercial contexts is the botanical identity of material labelled as "Brihati." In classical texts, two varieties of Brihati — Brihati and Sveta Brihati — are identified with S. indicum and S. torvum Swartz respectively. Other species of Solanum such as S. insanum Roxb. (Vanabhanta) and S. torvum (Sveta Brihati) are in common use under this name. It is also noticed that S. anguivi and S. trilobatum are in common use in South India. This widespread substitution means that material obtained under the Brihati name may not be exclusively or authentically Solanum indicum.

Absence of Human Clinical Safety Data

The mechanism of action or biochemical pathways of several compounds need to be elucidated in depth to correlate the activity of a particular phytoconstituent with a desired target. Furthermore, the toxicity and safety profile of this plant and its reported bioactive constituents need to be explored further before clinical studies on humans.

8. Current Research Status and Future Directions

Scientific research has tested many of the traditional uses, revealing anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities as well as some cytotoxic and antidiabetic effects. These pharmacological activities show potential future uses for organic drugs, natural health products, skincare formulations, and agricultural advancements.

Solanum indicum's anticancer efficacy indicates that it may be employed in novel cancer therapeutics, whereas its hepatoprotective and anti-diabetic activities hint at potential as a functional ingredient for liver health products and diabetes control.

Despite this promise, the overall evidence base for Solanum indicum remains at an early, preclinical stage. These reports are encouraging and indicate that the herb should be studied more extensively for its therapeutic benefits. Clinical trials using Solanum for a variety of combinations in different formulations should also be conducted. The transition from traditional use and in vitro/animal data to validated human efficacy and safety requires well-designed, adequately powered clinical trials that have not yet been published in the peer-reviewed literature for this specific plant.

References

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