Smoketree

Other Names

American Smoke TreeAmerican SmoketreeAmerican SmokewoodBhan tungChittam-woodChittamwoodChittumCommon SmoketreeCorona de CristoCotinus americanusCotinus arenariaCotinus cinereaCotinus coggygriaCotinus coriariaCotinus coriariusCotinus cotinoidesCotinus cotinusCotinus ellipticusCotinus obovatusCotinus retususCotinus velutinaDalea spinosaDyer's SumachEurasian SmoketreeEuropean SmoketreeFesteteFustetFustic WoodGad tunglaHuang luHungarian FusticHungarian SumacHungarian Yellow-woodIndian SumacIndigobushKalminaMangleMist TreePalo CenizoPalo de HumoPsorodendron spinosumPsorothamnus spinosusRhus cotinaRhus cotinoidesRhus cotinusRhus cotinus atropurpureaRhus cotinus pendulaRhus cotinus purpureaRhus laevisRhus obovatifoliaRhus simplicifoliaRhus velutinaSmoke BushSmoke ThornSmoke TreeSmokebushSmokethornSmokethorn DaleaTexas Smoke TreeTungTungoiTurkish SumacTyrolean SumacVenetian SumachVenetian-sumacWig TreeWigtreeWild Smoke TreeYellowwoodYoung Fustic

Synopsis

Smoketree (Cotinus coggygria Scop.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

1.1 Nomenclature and Taxonomy

Cotinus coggygria (syn. Rhus cotinus) — the European smoketree, Eurasian smoketree, smoke tree, smoke bush, Venetian sumach, or dyer's sumach — is a Eurasian species of flowering plant in the family Anacardiaceae. The use of the name Cotinus coccigria dates back to Theophrastus' De Historia Plantarum, one of the most important books on the structure and use of plants. Linnaeus first included the smoketree in the Rhus genus under the name Rhus cotinus, and the currently used name, Cotinus coggygria, was conferred by Scopoli in 1772. The genus name "Cotinus" means "wild olive" and is of Greek origin, while "coggygria" stems from the Greek word meaning smoke tree.

Several names for the plant — "smoketree," "smoke bush," and even "wig tree" — were inspired by this smoked appearance. The species is one of the seven of the genus Cotinus Mill., with others having a narrower distribution range: C. obovatus (native to the central and southeastern United States), C. carranzae and C. chiangii (both native to Mexico), and in Asia: C. kanaka (native to the southern part of the Eastern Himalayas), C. nanus and C. szechuanensis (growing in South-Central China).

1.2 Morphology and Distribution

It is a multiple-branching deciduous shrub growing to 5–7 metres tall with an open, spreading, irregular habit, only rarely forming a small tree. The leaves are 3–8 centimetres long rounded ovals, green with a waxy glaucous sheen. It gets its common name not from its tiny, yellowish flowers but from the billowy hairs attached to elongated stalks on the spent flower clusters, which turn a smoky pink to purplish pink in summer, covering the tree with fluffy, hazy, smoke-like puffs throughout summer.

The plant has a wide distribution from southern Europe, the Mediterranean, Moldova, and the Caucasus to central China and the Himalayas. In particular, it is notable for its broad geographic distribution, extending from Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region to Southern Russia, Moldova, the Caucasus, Turkey, Central China, and the Himalayas.

1.3 Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

A comprehensive review highlighted that pharmacological and phytochemical constituents of C. coggygria with a wide range of biological activities are derived from the plant's essential oils and extracts found in shoots, leaves, flowers, and heartwood. Different parts of the plant have been prepared and used in different ways across traditions:

Leaves: Prepared as aqueous infusions (teas/decoctions), ethanolic or methanol extracts, topical ointments, and gels.
Bark and stem heartwood: Prepared as decoctions and solvent extracts (ethanol, methanol, ethyl acetate).
Young shoots: Extracted with acetone or ethyl acetate for research and traditional antiseptic uses.
Essential oils: Obtained by hydrodistillation from leaves and inflorescences.

Research has established that to obtain an extract with a complex of biologically active substances from C. coggygria, ethyl alcohol (mass fraction 70%) with a hydromodule of 1:5 should be used, carrying out extraction for 60 minutes at a temperature of 60°C.

The dried leaf and twig of Cotinus coggygria are used in Chinese traditional medicine to eliminate "dampness" and "heat," and as an antipyretic. A yellow/orange dye can be obtained from the root and stem and can be used for fabric dyeing.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Historical Documentation

Key chemical constituents of the golden wood have been revealed in historical textiles from different parts of Europe and Asia: liturgical garments from the Athos Mountain, religious embroideries, brocaded velvets, and other ethnographical fabrics from Romania, and even Chinese textiles from Dunhuang dating back over a thousand years. Aside from its importance as a dye, smoketree was used for therapeutic purposes since Antiquity.

The knowledge of the therapeutic qualities that has been passed on from generation to generation has led to a reservoir of information that became the subject of modern research aimed at validating these effects through in vitro and in vivo experiments.

2.2 European Folk Medicine

C. coggygria has a consistent traditional use in Europe and Asia. The Encyclopedia of Romanian Ethnobotany points to the use of the plant as both a dye and medicine, employed for the treatment of wounds and pharyngitis.

Different parts of this plant have been subjected to pharmacological evaluation for their potential antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, and antihemorrhagic properties in wound-healing, as well as for countering diarrhea, paradontosis, and gastric and duodenal ulcers. There are few reports about internal use of ethanol infusions from the wooden parts of the plant to treat gastric ulcer and diarrhea. In Serbian folk medicine, decoction of the bark has also been used to treat cancer.

2.3 Turkish and Balkan Folk Medicine

The leaves of the plant are consumed as an infusion in Turkish folklore medicine for its anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antioxidant, antiseptic, antihemorrhagic, wound healing, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties. The leaves of the plant are also used as antidiarrhetic, and for gastric and duodenal ulcers and paradontosis in Bulgarian phytotherapy.

2.4 Chinese Traditional Medicine (TCM)

In China, C. coggygria was first documented in Ben Cao Shi Yi (Tang Dynasty) as a TCM. It was noted to be non-toxic and was used for treating jaundice, irritability, and fever. Cotinus coggygria has also been reported to be used in Chinese medicine for the prevention and treatment of coronary heart disease, angina pectoris, and myocardial infarction, as well as for improving hypoxia and dissolving thrombi.

2.5 Range of Traditional Indications

Its ethnomedicinal use in skin and mucosal lesions is commonly accepted across countries. Other utilizations reported locally include fever reduction, cardiac diseases, hypertension, urinary diseases, cough, asthma, hemorrhoids, diabetes, numbness of arm, liver disease, and cancer.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Phytochemical Overview

Phytochemical investigations of C. coggygria have identified over 300 constituents, with 57 purified compounds characterized to date. Phenolic derivatives dominate the isolated compounds, while terpenoid-rich volatile oils constitute the majority of leaf components.

The chemical composition of the plant includes three major groups of compounds: tannins, volatile organic compounds, and flavonoids.

3.2 Flavonoids — The Primary Bioactive Class

With regard to flavonoids, smoketree showcases a distinctive profile of 5-deoxyflavonoids consisting of notable amounts of sulfuretin, fisetin, and butein. Interestingly, this rare profile is shared by the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), a species of Asian origin that is taxonomically related to smoketree.

The isolated and identified flavonoid-class compounds reported in phytochemical studies include:

Heartwood flavonoids: Gallic acid and its methyl ester; catechin; profisetinidins (fisetinidol-(4α→8)-(+)-catechin and epifisetinidol-(4β→8)-(+)-catechin); flavanonols (fustin and dihydroquercetagetin); flavanones (butin and eriodictyol); flavonols (fisetin and quercetin); the chalcone butein; and the aurone sulfuretin.
Additional flavanones and flavonols across plant parts: Taxifolin, 4′,7-dihydroxyflavanol, liquiritigenin, 2,3-dihydroquercetagetin, 2,3-trans-fustin, 3-O-methyl-2,3-trans-fustin, 3-O-galloyl-2,3-trans-fustin, quercetin, and myricetin, as well as the flavone 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone.
Additional secondary metabolites: Aurones (sulfuretin, disulfuretin, sulfurein); chalcones (butein, isoliquiritigenin); anthocyanins (delphinidin-3-galactoside, cyanidin-3-galactoside, petunidin-3-glucoside); and catechins.

In both C. coggygria and the related T. vernicifluum, the major components are sulfuretin and fustin.

The methanol extract from the stem contained 3.78 mg gallic acid per gram of dry plant material in total phenolics, while the content of flavonoids was 8.29 mg rutin per gram of dry plant material. HPLC analysis showed that myricetin was a major component in the extract at 511.5 μg/g. Hydroxyl derivatives of cinnamic acids — including chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, ferulic, and rosmarinic acid — were also identified in the extract in various amounts.

3.3 Tannins

Cotinus coggygria contains a high amount of hydrolysable tannins, gallic acid, methyl gallate, and pentagalloyl glucose. The identified and quantified tannin-group compounds include pentagalloyl glucose, methyl gallate, and methyl digallate I. Phenolic compounds and tannins are synthesized abundantly in the flowering and fruit stages, whereas flavonoids and triterpenes accumulate during senescence.

3.4 Essential Oil / Volatile Organic Compounds

Cotinus coggygria contains an essential oil which mainly consists of monoterpenes. The essential oil, particularly from the leaves and young shoots, contains high levels of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes such as α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene D, compounds widely recognized for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity.

3.5 Total Flavonoid Quantification

The extracted total flavonoids of Cotinus coggygria in one study contained 1.03% myricetin (mol. wt. 318), 1.41% fisetin (mol. wt. 303), 1.40% rutin (mol. wt. 612), 0.09% quercetin (mol. wt. 338), and 0.08% of one additional uncharacterized flavonoid. The total flavonoid percentage was quantitated at 4.01%.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antioxidant Mechanisms

As a result of evaluating the effect of C. coggygria extract samples on the activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase), it was found that the level of the reduced form of glutathione under the action of antioxidant enzymes is significantly higher than that of the oxidised form, which indicates a significant decrease in free radical processes.

The ethyl acetate fraction of young shoots exhibited a significant ferric-reducing ability (10.7 mmol Fe²⁺/g extract), a very high DPPH radical scavenging activity (SC₅₀ = 1.7 μg/mL), and inhibition of lipid peroxidation (IC₅₀ = 41.8 μg/mL).

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

High amounts of total phenolics (929.8 mg/g), tannins (833.8 mg/g), and flavonoids (35.5 mg/g) were determined in the ethyl acetate fraction, which also exerted significant anti-inflammatory (76.7%) and cytotoxic effects (IC₅₀ = 15.6 μg/mL).

Among tested extracts, the methanolic leaf extract exhibited the highest cytotoxic capacity, and the possible mechanism could be related to its inhibitory effect on the release of proinflammatory cytokines in CD4+ cells.

4.3 Anticancer / Pro-apoptotic Mechanisms

Three extracts — butin, butein, and sulfuretin — initiated apoptosis in HeLa cells by activating caspase-8 and caspase-9. These extracts and compounds also inhibited HeLa cell migration.

CCF (total flavonoids) induced apoptosis in highly malignant glioblastoma cells, a process that apparently involved the inhibition of Akt coupled with ERK protein expression. This finding suggests that the PI3K/Akt-ERK signaling pathway is regulated by CCF and leads to the inhibition of glioblastoma cancer cell growth.

4.4 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition

The methanol extract from the heartwood of C. coggygria was shown to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) with an IC₅₀ of 89.3 μg/mL and CI₉₅% ranging from 72.4 to 108.7 μg/mL. This places heartwood extracts in a pharmacologically relevant range for AChE inhibition, though all such findings remain preclinical.

4.5 Antigenotoxic and Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

Myricetin, as a major component in the extract, is responsible for the antigenotoxic and hepatoprotective properties of the methanol extract of C. coggygria against pyrogallol-induced toxicity.

5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area

5.1 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro); no clinical human studies identified.

In one study investigating the antimicrobial activity of the young shoots of C. coggygria, the acetone extract and the derived ethyl acetate fraction effectively inhibited the growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (MIC 25–200 μg/mL), while the chloroform fraction showed pronounced activity against the yeast Candida albicans (MIC 3.12 μg/mL).

A leaves extract showed bactericidal activity against all tested S. aureus strains — both methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant — in concentrations ranging from 0.313 to 0.625 mg·mL⁻¹. Biofilm inhibitory concentrations were 10-times higher, and biofilm eradicating concentrations 100-times higher (8 and 32 mg·mL⁻¹, respectively).

Phytochemical analysis of C. coggygria leaves 60% methanol extract revealed quercetin rhamnoside, methyl gallate, and methyl trigallate as main constituents. Results indicated that C. coggygria, rich in tannins and flavonoids, is a prospective topical antibacterial agent with anti-biofilm activity.

In a 2025 study, the antimicrobial activity of water and methanolic extracts of C. coggygria leaves, bark, and flowers against various oral fungal and bacterial strains of clinical origin was tested by microdilution assay. The presence of numerous flavonoid and phenolic compounds such as sulfuretin, gallic acid, rutin, hyperoside, and isoquercitrine was detected. Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus parasanguinis, and Candida tropicalis were the most sensitive microbiological species, with MICs of 0.12 mg/mL for the most effective extracts.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and in vivo animal models); no randomized controlled trials in humans identified.

In anti-inflammatory activity studies, ethyl acetate fractions of young shoots were tested in carrageenan-induced edema in rat paws and were found to have significant anti-inflammatory activity in a dose-dependent manner.

Most of the effects mentioned in ethnopharmacy found support after scrutiny with in vitro and in vivo experimental models, particularly wound-healing, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects.

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical; one human study cited in a literature review for cardiovascular markers.

In human studies, Cotinus coggygria has been shown to reduce blood pressure levels in hypertensive patients, improve antioxidant status, and decrease risk factors associated with cardiovascular diseases. However, this citation is reported in a secondary review source; no primary clinical trial report was directly accessible to verify the study design, population size, or controls.

Accumulating evidence indicates that oxidative stress represents a key pathological mechanism underlying multiple diseases, including cardiovascular disorders, inflammatory conditions, and neoplastic processes. C. coggygria is rich in polyphenolic compounds, which are well-documented for their potent antioxidative properties, particularly in scavenging free radicals.

5.4 Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence level: Primarily animal (in vivo rodent models); limited clinical data reported in reviews.

In hepatoprotective activity studies, water infusions of C. coggygria leaves were tested in male rats at various concentrations and did not show subchronic toxicity in the liver. No pathological findings were found in the liver in histological examination.

Despite centuries of ethnomedicinal use with minimal documented adverse effects, current clinical validation of C. coggygria remains limited to hepatic disorders.

5.5 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical only — in vitro cell lines and animal models. No human clinical trials identified.

Ethanol extract, butin, butein, sulfuretin, and fisetin were highly selective against leukemia K562 cells when compared with normal fibroblasts MRC-5 (selectivity indices: 4.01, 5.15, 6.17, 7.05, and >4.41, respectively). Butein and fisetin showed high selectivity in cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells when compared with MRC-5 cells (selectivity indices: 9.91 and >6.61).

Human squamous cell carcinoma and colon cancer cell lines appeared to be most sensitive to a C. coggygria leaf methanolic extract (CCLM), with IC₅₀ values ranging from 17.0 μg/mL (HCT116 cells after 72 h treatment) to 28.6 μg/mL (SW480 cells after 48 h treatment).

Total flavonoid extracts of C. coggygria (CCF) could inhibit cell proliferation in glioblastoma cell lines, with IC₅₀ values of 128.49 μg/mL (U87), 107.62 μg/mL (U251), and 93.57 μg/mL (DBTRG-05MG). CCF induced apoptosis in these cells through inhibition of Akt coupled with ERK protein expression, suggesting regulation of the PI3K/Akt-ERK signaling pathway.

The mitochondrial caspase-dependent cascade was regulated by total flavonoids and myricetin. In addition, total flavonoids and myricetin exhibited significant antitumor effects on glioblastoma in vivo. These results suggest that phytochemical and biological data provide evidence for the active components in Cotinus coggygria, and that the total flavonoids are responsible for anticancer effects on glioblastoma via induction of apoptosis.

In Serbian ethnomedicine, bark decoctions have also been employed in the treatment of cancer, prompting contemporary interest in its potential anticancer effects. All such findings remain in preclinical stages.

5.6 Antidiabetic and Hypolipidemic Activity

Evidence level: Animal (in vivo) studies; no randomized human clinical trials identified.

The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity of C. coggygria extracts was evaluated in Swiss male Albino mice by administering an oral dose of 150–250 mg/kg in alloxan-induced diabetic mice for 15 days. The antioxidant activity and phytochemical composition were assessed using DPPH and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assays. The effects on blood glucose, body weight, lipid profile, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), LDL, HDL, plasma insulin, liver glycogen, AST, ALT, ALP, urea, and creatinine were determined.

The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects with chloroform extracts at 250 mg/kg were found significant in the treatment of diabetes in alloxanized mice compared to the diabetic group. Haematological parameters including TC, TG, HDL, LDL, creatinine, urea, AST, ALT, and ALP were significantly improved (p < 0.01) by the chloroform extract of 250 mg/kg compared to the diabetic group. Treatment for 15 days showed significant elevation (p < 0.01) of antioxidant enzymes.

According to ethnopharmacological investigations, the plant has long been utilized in traditional herbal treatments for the management of diabetes mellitus due to its considerable hypoglycemic effect with concomitant improvement in the antioxidant status.

5.7 Wound Healing

Evidence level: Animal (in vivo) and in vitro; no human clinical trials identified.

Topical application of an ointment containing 5% ethanol extract has demonstrated significant potential to accelerate wound healing, particularly in diabetic wounds in rats. The pharmacological activity of C. coggygria was demonstrated in studies using extracts from young shoots, where phenolic- and tannin-rich fractions showed strong anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects, supporting its relevance for inflammatory conditions such as aphthous stomatitis.

5.8 Gastrointestinal Applications

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro cell lines); no human clinical trials identified.

Cotinus coggygria Scop. is traditionally used for the treatment of various gastrointestinal ailments. The methanolic leaf extract exhibited the highest cytotoxic capacity among tested samples, and the possible mechanism could be related to its inhibitory effect on the release of proinflammatory cytokines in CD4+ cells. The traditional use of C. coggygria for gastrointestinal diseases may be substantiated by its ability to inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms and its promising cytotoxic properties.

Further research is essential to elucidate the precise mechanisms of action underlying its immunomodulatory effects, as well as to assess its safety, efficacy, and potential for clinical application. Continued investigations into the pharmacological profiles of C. coggygria could provide valuable insights into its role in managing gastrointestinal diseases and related inflammatory conditions.

5.9 Neurological — Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition

Evidence level: In vitro only.

Studies on Cotinus coggygria heartwood have identified it as a new source of acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting compounds. The methanol extract from the heartwood showed inhibition of AChE with an IC₅₀ of 89.3 μg/mL, with CI₉₅% ranging from 72.4 to 108.7 μg/mL. These findings are in vitro only and have not been extended to clinical investigation.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Smoketree

Integumentary system (skin and mucosa): Ethnomedicinal use in skin and mucosal lesions is commonly accepted across countries.
Hepatobiliary system: The extract of C. coggygria is used as a cholagogue, febrifuge, and for eye ailments. Hepatoprotective effects are among the most studied.
Cardiovascular system: The plant has been reported to be used for the prevention and treatment of coronary heart disease, angina pectoris, and myocardial infarction, as well as for improving hypoxia and dissolving thrombi.
Gastrointestinal system: The leaves are used as antidiarrhetic, and for gastric and duodenal ulcers and paradontosis in Bulgarian phytotherapy.
Endocrine/metabolic system: Traditional and in vivo evidence for hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties.
Immune/inflammatory system: Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects demonstrated in preclinical models.
Nervous system: Preclinical AChE inhibition in heartwood extracts.
Oncology (preclinical): Cytotoxic effects across multiple cancer cell lines (leukemia, HeLa, glioblastoma, colorectal) in vitro and in select animal models.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

C. coggygria is not included in any European Pharmacopoeia or subject to standardized monograph dosing guidelines. It is not included in European Pharmacopoeias. The following dosages have been reported only in preclinical research contexts:

In vivo antidiabetic study (mice): The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity was evaluated by administering an oral dose of 150–250 mg/kg of C. coggygria extracts in alloxan-induced diabetic mice for 15 days.
Genotoxicity evaluation (rodents): For genotoxic evaluation, three concentrations of the extract were tested: 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight, based on the solubility limit of the extract in saline.
Acute toxicity limit dose (mice): The extracts were determined to be safe in mice up to a dose level of 2,000 mg/kg body weight because they did not produce any obvious toxicity indications.
In vitro antimicrobial studies: Acetone and ethyl acetate fractions effectively inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at MIC 25–200 μg/mL, while chloroform fractions showed activity against Candida albicans at MIC 3.12 μg/mL.
In vitro cytotoxicity (gastrointestinal cancer cell lines): Cytotoxic activity was determined against different gastrointestinal carcinoma cell lines (CAL27, FaDu, SW480, HCT116, and MRC-5) in concentrations ranging from 3.125 to 400 μg/mL for 48 and 72 hours.
Optimal extraction parameters: To obtain an extract of a complex of biologically active substances, ethyl alcohol (mass fraction 70%) with a hydromodule of 1:5 should be used, with extraction carried out for 60 minutes at a temperature of 60°C.

No standardized human clinical dosing protocols have been established in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed for this article.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 General Toxicity Profile

In Chinese traditional medicine, C. coggygria was noted to be non-toxic, and to date, the plant has been applied in clinical practice with no related toxicity reported. Despite centuries of ethnomedicinal use with minimal documented adverse effects, current clinical validation remains limited to hepatic disorders, and critical research gaps persist in elucidating molecular mechanisms, dose-response relationships, and long-term safety profiles.

8.2 Genotoxicity — A Notable Signal at High Doses

Genotoxic potential of a methanol extract from the plant stem of C. coggygria was evaluated using the sex-linked recessive lethal (SLRL) test and alkaline comet assay. The SLRL test revealed genotoxic effects in postmeiotic and premeiotic germ-cell lines. The comet assay was carried out on rat liver and bone marrow at 24 and 72 hours after intraperitoneal administration. For genotoxic evaluation, three concentrations were tested: 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight. Comet tail moment and total scores in the group treated with 500 mg/kg were not significantly different from the control group, whereas in groups treated with 1,000 and 2,000 mg/kg, scores were statistically significant.

Although 1,000 and 2,000 mg/kg body weight of the methanol extract of total phenolics, tannins, and flavonoids showed a low level of genotoxicity, 500 mg/kg body weight of the extract showed no genotoxic potential, and myricetin, as the major component in the extract, is responsible for the antigenotoxic and hepatoprotective properties of the methanol extract.

8.3 In Vitro Cytotoxicity to Normal Cells

The potential cytotoxic effect of hexane, ethanol, and water extracts from C. coggygria on two eukaryotic cell lines — human gingival fibroblasts (HGF-1) and keratinocytes (HaCaT) — was assessed using XTT assay. Water extracts were slightly but measurably affecting the viability of both cell lines (p < 0.001), while the ethanolic extract appeared to be toxic to both cell lines (p < 0.0001).

8.4 Contact Dermatitis Risk

Cotinus coggygria contains urushiol, the same substance found in poison ivy. Contact with its sap can cause contact dermatitis, especially in those who are sensitive to urushiol. Symptoms include itching, redness, and irritation. This risk applies particularly to handling of fresh plant material and sap, as urushiol is a known delayed-type hypersensitivity allergen shared across the Anacardiaceae family.

8.5 Microbial and Heavy Metal Safety of Extracts

Investigated plant extracts with the complex of bioactive substances from C. coggygria leaves and flowers are safe from the point of view of the content of heavy metals, pesticides, aflatoxin B1, radionuclides, as well as pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms.

8.6 Pharmacological Interactions — Current State of Evidence

No systematically characterized drug interaction data for C. coggygria extracts were identified in peer-reviewed literature or institutional drug databases during preparation of this article. For the related species Toxicodendron vernicifluum — which shares most key secondary metabolites with smoketree — not only comprehensive in vitro and in vivo studies but also clinical data are available. Most studies used extracts standardized in fustin (>13.0%), fisetin (7.0%), sulfuretin, butein, and other compounds. Given the shared flavonoid profile, interaction data from related species may become relevant but cannot be directly extrapolated without direct evidence.

8.7 Regulatory Status

Cotinus coggygria is not included in European Pharmacopoeias. Considering data from the literature, it could be demonstrated that C. coggygria possesses diverse bioactive properties and immense utilization in medicine, health care, cosmetics, and as health supplements. No EMA, ESCOP, WHO monograph, or Commission E monograph for this plant was identified in the sources reviewed.

9. Evidence Summary

Bioactivity assessments of C. coggygria reveal broad therapeutic potential, including hepatoprotective, antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticoagulant effects. Flavonoid constituents emerge as the primary bioactive contributors, supported by mechanistic studies.

Cotinus coggygria is a species brought to the attention of modern pharmacological research via centuries-old traditional medicine. It is not included in European Pharmacopoeias. Most of the effects mentioned in ethnopharmacy found support after scrutiny with in vitro and in vivo experimental models: wound-healing, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory.

Despite centuries of ethnomedicinal use with minimal documented adverse effects, current clinical validation of C. coggygria remains limited to hepatic disorders. Critical research gaps persist in elucidating molecular mechanisms, dose-response relationships, and long-term safety profiles. The preponderance of current evidence is preclinical, and randomized human trials across the plant's traditional indications remain largely absent from the published literature.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Smoketree may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Smoketree may help support.

No body systems available.