Sinapis arvensis

Sinapis arvensis L. (Charlock Mustard / Wild Mustard): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Botanical Description

1.1 Accepted Name and Synonymy

Sinapis arvensis L. (synonyms include Brassica arvensis and the accepted newer combination Rhamphospermum arvense) is an annual or winter annual plant in the family Brassicaceae. It was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication Species Plantarum on page 668 in 1753. A number of other synonyms appear in the historical literature, including Brassica kaber (DC.) L.C. Wheeler, Brassica sinapis, and Brassica sinapistrum, reflecting longstanding taxonomic uncertainty about the boundaries of the genus Sinapis relative to Brassica. The taxonomic delineation of the genus Sinapis is controversial; DNA sequence comparisons suggest that the genus is artificial, and species have been variously ascribed to Sinapis and Brassica.

It is commonly known as charlock, or sometimes as charlock mustard, field mustard, or wild mustard.

1.2 Botanical Description

Sinapis arvensis reaches on average 20–80 centimeters in height, but under optimal conditions can exceed one meter. The stems are erect, branched, and striated, with coarse spreading hairs especially near the base. The leaves are petiolate (stalked) with a length of 1–4 centimeters. The basal leaves are oblong, oval, lanceolate, lyrate, pinnatifid to dentate, 4–18 centimeters long and 2–5 centimeters wide. The cauline (stem) leaves are much reduced and are short petiolate to sessile but not auriculate-clasping. Flowers are yellow, 15 to 20 mm in diameter. The fruit is 25 to 45 mm long and beaded, sometimes bristly. It is in flower from May to July, and the seeds ripen from May to August.

1.3 Geographic Distribution

Sinapis arvensis is an aggressive weed that is native throughout most of the temperate regions of Europe, Asia Minor, southwest Asia, and North Africa. It has become naturalized throughout much of North America and is a highly invasive species. It has also become naturalized throughout much of North America, South America, Australia, Japan, and South Africa. It is found in North Africa, within Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia, as well as the Middle East and the Mediterranean basin. Wild mustard grows in disturbed places and is rarely found in undisturbed wildlands.

1.4 Relationship to Other Sinapis Species

Sinapis alba is the best-known species; S. arvensis has a mixed glucosinolate profile, and S. nigra is often considered to be a mustard plant. Within the Sinapis spp., white mustard (S. alba) is the only species with a substantiated agricultural and biomedical profile. The remaining taxa (S. arvensis, S. pubescens, S. allionii, S. integrifolia) appear to have marginal relevance in formal biomedical literature relative to S. alba. This must be kept in mind when evaluating scientific claims: much of the published pharmacology of the Sinapis genus concerns S. alba or Brassica juncea, not S. arvensis directly.

2. Traditional and Historical Uses

2.1 Food Uses in Traditional Cultures

Edible parts include flowers, leaves, oil, and seeds. Leaves—raw or cooked—are the primary food use; the young leaves are used as a flavouring in salads where they add a piquant flavour. Older leaves are used as a potherb. It is best to use just the young shoots and leaves in the spring; older leaves are bitter. Flowering stems, when cooked, have a pleasant cabbage/radish flavour and can be used as a broccoli substitute before the flowers open. The stems should be lightly steamed for no more than 5 minutes.

Some plants which were very much appreciated and frequently consumed in the past are now considered weeds, and even though they have been mentioned, they are only rarely eaten; in the territories studied (Cyprus), this is the case of Sinapis alba and Sinapis arvensis. Ethnobotanical surveys in the Aegean Region of Turkey have recorded Sinapis arvensis (locally called hardal otu) with aboveground parts roasted with egg, or boiled and made into a salad.

A 2025 Algerian study documented Sinapis arvensis among a cohort of nutri-medicinal plants from the semi-arid region of Bordj Bou Arreridj, noting its traditional recognition alongside other plants used for both food and remedy purposes. This study assessed the forage and phytomedicinal potential of six species, including Sinapis arvensis, collected from the semi-arid region, examining their phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and nutrient contents.

2.2 Medicinal Uses in Traditional Medicine

Sinapis arvensis, commonly known as charlock mustard, is a species within the Sinapis genus that has been used in traditional remedies, such as heated compresses, to serve as a counterirritant. This counterirritant application — the application of a mustard poultice or plaster to the skin to promote local blood flow and stimulate the nervous system — is the most consistently recorded medicinal use across cultures. Ethnobotanical records from Turkey document its use in folk medicine for rheumatic pain conditions.

The Springer monograph series on Ethnobotany of mountain regions documents Sinapis arvensis in the Republic of Georgia (Caucasus), where traditional uses were recorded in detail by Bussmann and colleagues. This was published in the Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Far Eastern Europe volume (Springer International Publishing, 2020).

Ethnobotanical surveys from North Africa—particularly Algeria—have also noted the plant's medicinal use. Multiple surveys from the region of Aures, Algeria, and from the highland region of Bordj Bou Arreridj recorded S. arvensis among the spontaneous medicinal plants of the area. An ethnobotanical survey covering Morocco from 1991 to 2015, published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2021), included Sinapis species among the documented medicinal flora.

2.3 Preparations

Traditional preparations of S. arvensis that appear in ethnobotanical literature include:

• Poultice/plaster (external): Crushed or ground seeds mixed into a paste applied to the skin as a rubefacient and counterirritant for joint pain, muscle aches, and respiratory congestion.
• Boiled greens: Young aerial parts boiled as a vegetable, particularly in Turkey, the Caucasus, and North Africa.
• Decoction: Documented in some Algerian ethnobotanical surveys for internal use.
• Raw in salads: Young spring leaves consumed raw in Mediterranean countries.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Glucosinolates

Glucosinolates are the defining secondary metabolites of S. arvensis and the broader Brassicaceae family, and they are considered the most pharmacologically significant class of compounds in this species. Glucosinolates are present in the vegetative parts of these plants and in much higher concentrations in the seeds.

Levels of sinalbin (4-hydroxybenzylglucosinolate) and 28 other glucosinolates were determined in leaves and roots of 20 species that were either phylogenetically close to Sinapis alba, Sinapis arvensis, or Sinapis pubescens (tribe Brassiceae, Brassicaceae). A second, independent occurrence of sinalbin was identified in S. arvensis, nested among sinalbin-deficient species. The crucifers Sinapis alba and Sinapis arvensis are distantly related but both contain 4-hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (sinalbin) and enzymatic activity converting the corresponding nitrile to amide and carboxylic acid.

Additionally, glucosinolates including glucobrassicin, neoglucobrassicin, and sinapic acid were identified in the seeds of S. arvensis. S. arvensis has a mixed glucosinolate profile, meaning it contains a broader array of glucosinolates compared to S. alba (which is dominated by sinalbin).

3.2 Myrosinase and the Glucosinolate-Isothiocyanate System

Glucosinolates are hydrolyzed by an enzymatic system of thioglucosidases and myrosinase in the parenchymal tissues of the plant. Products of hydrolysis include glucose, hydrosulfuric acid, and an aglycone containing nitrogen and sulfur. The last product is unstable and hydrolyzed to isothiocyanate and organic nitrile.

Significant 4-hydroxyphenylacetonitrile-degrading enzyme activity was found in both S. alba and S. arvensis, but in S. alba the major product was the corresponding carboxylic acid, while in S. arvensis the major product was the amide. This enzymatic difference distinguishes the two species biochemically and may influence the pharmacological activity and irritancy of each plant's glucosinolate hydrolysis products.

Enzymatic breakdown of these secondary metabolites by the action of thioglucosidases or myrosinases produces volatile compounds including nitriles and isothiocyanates that are responsible for the sulphurous odour and the strongly pungent taste of various vegetables of the Brassicaceae family. Investigations have revealed that the essential oils of S. arvensis (Jordanian origin) were rich in isothiocyanates and nitriles.

3.3 Essential Oil Constituents

The essential oil of S. arvensis was found to contain a complex mixture of aldehydes, nitriles, sulphur-containing compounds, and mono- and sesquiterpenes. This volatile fraction is largely responsible for the plant's pungent, irritant organoleptic properties and contributes to its antimicrobial activity.

3.4 Phenolic Acids

A study investigating the chemical composition and biological activities of Sinapis arvensis using HPLC-DAD in vitro assays found that S. arvensis was rich in caffeic acid (0.80 mg/g) and ferulic acid (0.09 mg/g). These hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives are well characterised antioxidants across the botanical kingdom and contribute to the plant's measured reducing capacity.

Sinapine and sinapic acid are among the main active ingredients of mustard seeds for medicinal effects. Sinapic acid—a derivative of cinnamic acid abundant in Brassicaceae—has been shown in other contexts to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties.

3.5 Other Phytochemicals

Screening of Sinapis arvensis from Algerian collections revealed diverse bioactive compound classes including alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, coumarins, glucosides, reducing sugars, triterpenoids, quinones, saponins, and anthocyanins. The alkaloid sinapin, present across the mustard genus, is also reported as a constituent. The poisonous constituents in large doses are the volatile oil of mustard, the alkaloid sinapin, and the alkaloidal glucoside sinalbin.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Isothiocyanate metabolites, together with flavonoids and tocopherols, present anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. In the broader Sinapis genus, mustard-derived products suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and inhibit a broad spectrum of pathogens at micromolar concentrations. These mechanisms have been demonstrated in vitro and in animal models, primarily for S. alba; direct evidence in S. arvensis-specific studies is limited.

An in vitro study published in the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (2022) specifically tested flower extracts of S. arvensis against the benchmark standard diclofenac. The study showed that flower extracts of Sinapis arvensis exhibited concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory property in vitro, proving to be nearly comparable to diclofenac at certain concentrations. The method used was inhibition of heat-induced bovine serum albumin (BSA) denaturation, a standard in vitro surrogate for anti-inflammatory screening. This study was laboratory-based (in vitro), involved no human subjects, and must be considered preliminary evidence only.

4.2 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Antioxidant assays demonstrated that methanol extracts of S. arvensis showed the highest cupric reducing power (138.61 ± 3.17 µg/mL) compared to the comparator plant in the same study. Phenolic acids such as caffeic acid and ferulic acid contribute to free-radical scavenging via hydrogen atom donation to neutralise radical species. The glucosinolates in mustard seeds and their degradation products have antioxidant, liver-protective, anti-cough, anti-asthma, and anti-cancer effects according to pharmacological reviews of the broader mustard seed category.

4.3 Antimicrobial Mechanisms

The antibacterial activities of essential oils of S. alba and S. arvensis were assayed in vitro by agar disc diffusion and agar well diffusion methods against 7 bacterial species. Isothiocyanates produced via enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates are the primary agents of antimicrobial activity. These differences are important because isothiocyanates vary in antimicrobial activity, irritant effect, and safety depending on which glucosinolate precursor is present.

4.4 Counterirritant and Rubefacient Mechanism

The historical poultice use of mustard species including S. arvensis as a counterirritant depends on the irritant properties of allyl isothiocyanate and related volatile isothiocyanates liberated from glucosinolates when plant tissue is disrupted and moistened. Several of the Brassicaceae contain allyl isothiocyanate, which is a potent irritant. When applied to intact skin, these compounds cause local vasodilation and sensory nerve activation, which underlies the rubefacient (warming/reddening) and counterirritant effect in traditional musculoskeletal applications.

Allyl isothiocyanate is used as a flavouring agent, in medicine as a rubefacient (counterirritant), as a fumigant, in ointments, and in mustard plasters.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence level: Preliminary; in vitro only (no human clinical data specific to S. arvensis).

The primary specific study on S. arvensis anti-inflammatory activity is the 2022 paper in the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, which used flower extracts assessed via the BSA denaturation assay, an in vitro protein-denaturation inhibition method commonly used as a surrogate screen for anti-inflammatory potential. The study showed that flower extracts of Sinapis arvensis exhibited concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory property in vitro. Limitations include: no animal model or human data; the BSA denaturation assay does not directly model in vivo inflammatory cascades; no bioavailability or pharmacokinetic data were presented; the extract was not fully characterised at the molecular level in this study.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: Preliminary; in vitro only.

A study investigating Sinapis arvensis using HPLC-DAD and in vitro assays found that S. arvensis was rich in caffeic (0.80 mg/g) and ferulic acids (0.09 mg/g), and demonstrated the highest cupric reducing power (138.61 ± 3.17 µg/mL) in antioxidant assays. These in vitro antioxidant measurements (CUPRAC assay) reflect the chemical reducing potential of the plant extracts but do not establish clinical efficacy. No human studies on antioxidant outcomes attributable specifically to S. arvensis ingestion or topical application have been published.

5.3 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: Preliminary; in vitro only.

The essential oils of S. arvensis of Jordanian origin were rich in isothiocyanates and nitriles, and their antibacterial activities were assayed in vitro by agar disc diffusion and agar well diffusion methods against 7 bacterial species. Isothiocyanates are established antimicrobial agents at micromolar concentrations in cell culture. However, no clinical trials testing S. arvensis preparations for infectious disease outcomes have been published. The in vitro findings cannot be directly translated to clinical applications without pharmacokinetic and efficacy data in humans.

5.4 Nutritional and Forage Value

Evidence level: Established compositional data; no clinical nutrition trials.

A 2025 study assessed the forage and nutritional potential of Sinapis arvensis alongside five other nutri-medicinal plant species from the semi-arid region of Algeria, examining phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and nutrient contents to assess suitability as livestock forage during scarcity. The plant is documented as a historically significant food source (wild green) across multiple Mediterranean and Middle Eastern traditions. Its seeds yield a fixed oil comparable in composition to other Brassicaceae seed oils.

5.5 Counterirritant / Musculoskeletal Applications

Evidence level: Historical/traditional use; no controlled human clinical trials specific to S. arvensis.

Sinapis arvensis has been used in traditional remedies, such as heated compresses, to serve as a counterirritant. The rubefacient mechanism is chemically plausible and shared with other mustard species, but controlled clinical evidence for S. arvensis-specific preparations in musculoskeletal conditions does not exist in the published literature. For S. alba-based mustard plasters, there is a longer documented clinical tradition, but rigorous RCT-level evidence is also sparse.

5.6 Cancer-related / Antiproliferative Research

Evidence level: In vitro and animal studies only; no human clinical data for S. arvensis.

Research on the broader Brassicaceae family has established that glucosinolate hydrolysis products—particularly isothiocyanates and indoles—have antiproliferative, pro-apoptotic activity in cancer cell lines. High Brassicaceae consumption reduces the risk of developing several cancer types, probably due to high levels of glucosinolates. For S. arvensis specifically, no human clinical trials exist. The antiproliferative evidence for the genus as a whole derives primarily from studies of S. alba and S. nigra, with antiproliferative activity correlated to Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases modulation, and cell-cycle analysis evidencing a proapoptotic effect of S. alba on both tumor cell lines tested. Whether S. arvensis shares these activities to a comparable degree cannot be confirmed without species-specific research.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Sinapis arvensis

• Musculoskeletal system: Counterirritant poultice use for joint and muscle pain (traditional; no RCT evidence for this species).
• Skin / integumentary system: Topical rubefacient application; note that skin irritation and chemical burns are also documented risks (see Safety section).
• Digestive system: Traditional use as an edible wild green; glucosinolates and glucosinolate hydrolysis products are gastrointestinal mucosa irritants at high doses.
• Immune / anti-inflammatory: In vitro evidence for anti-inflammatory activity of flower extracts.
• Antioxidant / general cellular health: In vitro antioxidant capacity attributed to caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and related phenolics in plant extracts.
• Antimicrobial: In vitro antibacterial activity of essential oil attributed to isothiocyanate content.
• Thyroid / endocrine system: Glucosinolate degradation products can have goitrogenic effects at high intake (see Safety section).

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No formal pharmacopeial or monograph dosage standards for Sinapis arvensis specifically have been identified in the reviewed literature. The following dosage-relevant information is derived from scientific publications and ethnobotanical records:

• In vitro anti-inflammatory study (JCDR, 2022): Flower extracts were tested at increasing concentrations in vitro compared to diclofenac. Specific concentrations were assessed using BSA denaturation inhibition. No human dose was established from this work.
• In vitro antioxidant/HPLC study (Tandfonline, 2025): HPLC quantification showed S. arvensis extracts contained caffeic acid at 0.80 mg/g and ferulic acid at 0.09 mg/g. These are compositional measurements, not dosing recommendations.
• Topical/external use (traditional): External seed poultice use should be limited to 10–15 minutes in adults (or less in sensitive individuals) and 5–10 minutes in children, given the risk of skin irritation and chemical burns.

No human oral clinical trial reporting a defined dose of Sinapis arvensis extract or preparation has been identified in this review. All available pharmacological dosing data are derived from in vitro experiments and cannot be translated to human equivalents without further research.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Gastrointestinal Irritancy

Glucosinolates are irritants for the alimentary tract mucosa. This applies to the vegetative parts as well as the seeds, though seeds contain far higher concentrations. The Sinapis genus contains species which, if ingested in large amounts, can cause irritant poisoning.

8.2 Goitrogenic Effects

Glucosinolates and their breakdown products are goitrogenic at sufficiently high doses. In the broader Brassicaceae context: following enzymatic breakdown, some glucosinolates in brassica vegetables produce sulforaphane, phenethyl, and indolylic isothiocyanates that possess anticarcinogenic activity; in contrast, progoitrin and indolylic glucosinolates degrade to goitrin and thiocyanate, respectively, and may decrease thyroid hormone production. Whether S. arvensis contains progoitrin in goitrogenically relevant concentrations has not been specifically characterised in the reviewed literature.

8.3 Acute Poisoning in Livestock

A case report published in PMC (2021) described possible acute poisoning by Sinapis arvensis in sheep. The poisonous constituents are the volatile oil of mustard, the alkaloid sinapin, and the alkaloidal glucoside sinalbin. Brassica spp. are part of the family Cruciferae, which often contain a sulfonated oxime group combined with glucose in the form of glycosides, referred to as glucosinolates. This case report documents that excessive ingestion of S. arvensis foliage can cause clinically significant toxidrome in ruminants, with serum biochemical abnormalities and clinical signs of toxicity. Direct extrapolation to human toxicity is not straightforward, but the case underscores that the plant is not inert at high doses.

8.4 Skin and External Use Risks

External seed preparations can irritate and burn the skin; poultice use should be limited to 10–15 minutes in adults (or less in sensitive individuals) and 5–10 minutes in children. The mechanism is the direct irritant and vesicant action of isothiocyanates liberated from crushed seeds.

8.5 Contraindications Noted in Ethnobotanical Literature

The genus is contraindicated in children below 6 years of age and in patients with renal disease, gastric tract ulcers, and mustard allergy.

8.6 Allergenic Potential

Mustard contains the 2S albumins Sin a 1 and Sin a 2, which are recognized food allergens capable of eliciting IgE-mediated and contact reactions. These allergens are characterised primarily in S. alba but the allergenic proteins are shared across the genus. Individuals with known mustard allergy should avoid all Sinapis species.

8.7 Allyl Isothiocyanate — Rodent Carcinogenicity Data

Several of the Brassicaceae contain allyl isothiocyanate, which is a potent irritant and has mutagenic activity in bacteria and fetotoxic and carcinogenic effects in rats. These findings from high-dose rodent toxicology studies are not established at typical human dietary or therapeutic exposure levels.

8.8 Long-term Safety

Long-term safety remains insufficiently characterized across the mustard species including S. arvensis. No chronic toxicology studies in humans for S. arvensis-specific preparations have been published.

9. Evidence Summary and Research Gaps

Sinapis arvensis occupies a well-documented ethnobotanical position across Mediterranean, North African, Middle Eastern, and Caucasian traditional food and medicine systems. Its chemical constitution — particularly its mixed glucosinolate profile yielding sinalbin, glucobrassicin, and neoglucobrassicin upon hydrolysis, along with its phenolic acid content (notably caffeic and ferulic acids) — provides a plausible chemical basis for the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities observed in preliminary in vitro studies.

However, the weight of available evidence for pharmacological applications is currently confined to:

• In vitro cell-based and biochemical assays (anti-inflammatory BSA denaturation, antioxidant CUPRAC, antibacterial disc diffusion)
• Compositional chemical analyses (HPLC-DAD characterisation of phenolics and glucosinolates)
• Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional use

No randomised controlled trials, cohort studies, or other clinical research in human populations have been published for Sinapis arvensis-specific preparations as of the available literature. The species remains significantly understudied compared to its congener S. alba. All pharmacological claims require independent replication in animal models and subsequently in human studies before clinical conclusions can be drawn. The safety profile, while partially informed by traditional use and by-analogy data from the wider Brassicaceae, is also incompletely characterised for this specific species at therapeutic doses.

References

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