Silicon

Silicon (Dietary Supplement)

1. Identity: Chemical Names, Natural Sources, and Common Forms

Chemical identity. Silicon is the second most abundant element on Earth, and the third most abundant trace element in the human body. In nature it rarely exists in elemental form; instead it is encountered as silicon dioxide (SiO₂), commonly called silica, and as a diverse family of silicates. Silicon naturally occurs in foods as silicon dioxide (SiO₂) and silicates, while most silicon in water is present as free orthosilicic acid (OSA; H₄SiO₄). Orthosilicic acid — also written Si(OH)₄ — is the biologically active, water-soluble monomeric form that predominates in the human diet. Silicon in the form of silica, or silicon dioxide (SiO₂), is a common food additive but has limited intestinal absorption.

Elemental classification. Silicon is a proposed nutritional trace element with potential roles in metabolic, neurobiological, endocrine, inflammatory, and bone-related processes. Its total body distribution has been estimated at approximately 1–2 g, making it the third most abundant trace element after iron and zinc.

Botanical and natural sources. Dietary silicon is mainly found in plant-based foods, such as rice, whole-grain cereals (including cereal products such as beer), vegetables, fruit, and mineral water. Dietary sources of bioavailable silicon include whole grains, cereals, beer, and some vegetables such as green beans. The most important botanical vehicle for silicon supplementation is Equisetum arvense (common horsetail). Horsetail silica's primary component is silicon dioxide. This naturally occurring compound constitutes up to 70% of the total weight of dried horsetail plant material. However, research has demonstrated that the level of silicon in the whole horsetail plant is approximately 5%, whereas the maximum water-extractable silicon was only 0.3% of the plant; the amount of extractable silicon from normal usage of horsetail tea is less than the silicon content present in one slice of bread, leading to the conclusion that the silicon from horsetail is not responsible for the health benefits attributed to the plant.

Common supplemental forms. There are different forms of silicon supplements available, and the most important consideration for selecting the best option is related to safety and bioavailability. Silicon supplements are widely used, though there is wide variation in silicon bioavailability, ranging from values below 1% up to values close to 50%, depending on the chemical form. The principal forms encountered in practice include:

• Orthosilicic acid (OSA): The monomeric, most bioavailable form. Weathering of rocks and soil minerals produces, in low concentrations, a soluble monomeric form of silica known as orthosilicic acid (Si(OH)₄). Orthosilicic acid is thought to be readily absorbed from the small intestine as its small molecular size and lack of charge allow it to pass easily through the mucosal layer of the gastrointestinal tract.
• Choline-stabilized orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA): A commercially developed stabilized liquid form of OSA complexed with choline, designed to prevent polymerization and preserve bioavailability at supplement concentrations.
• OSA–vanillin complex (OSA-VC): OSA-VC is described as a complex composed of orthosilicic acid and vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde). This form received EFSA Novel Food authorization.
• Silicon dioxide (SiO₂) and silica gel: Polymeric, poorly soluble forms used extensively as food additives (anti-caking agents) and in some supplements, with low gastrointestinal bioavailability.
• Monomethylsilanetriol (MMST) / organic silicon: A synthetic organically-bound silicon compound.
• Horsetail-derived extracts: Standardized aqueous or ethanolic extracts of Equisetum arvense aerial parts, listed in national pharmacopoeias, traditionally prepared as infusions or tinctures.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient and Classical traditions. Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) is an herbal remedy that dates back to ancient Roman and Greek times. It was used traditionally to stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems. Reportedly first recommended by the Roman physician Galen, several cultures employed horsetail as a folk remedy for kidney and bladder troubles, arthritis, bleeding ulcers, and tuberculosis.

Medieval European and folk medicine. Horsetail was commonly used for its diuretic properties, promoting urination and alleviating fluid retention. It was also used for wound healing, bone health, and as an astringent to stop bleeding. The topical use of horsetail was used traditionally to stop the bleeding of wounds and promote rapid healing. The use of this herb as an abrasive cleanser to scour pots or shave wood illustrates the origin of horsetail's common names — "scouring rush" and "shave grass."

Native American traditions. The stems, high in silica content, were used by American Indians and early Euro-American settlers for scouring and polishing pots and pans and could be used for sanding wooden objects, like arrow shafts or floor planks.

Beauty and structural tonics. Across cultures, horsetail has been used for a variety of purposes; folk herbalists often used horsetail as a beauty tonic thanks to its silica content, believing it to improve hair strength, reduce breakage, and support healthier nails. For these purposes horsetail is best taken as an infusion or decoction due to the water solubility of its minerals.

Botanical composition recognized in historical use. Horsetail is rich in silicic acid and silicates, which provide approximately 2–3% elemental silicon. Potassium, aluminum, and manganese, along with fifteen different types of flavonoids, are also found in this herb.

Scientific era beginnings. Researchers' interest in silicon as an element important for the functioning of the animal and human body began in the 1970s. Initial experiments about the nutritional significance of silicon for human health were performed by Schiano et al. (1979), who found a significant increase in trabecular bone volume by using monomethyl trisilanol as an external silica source.

3. Key Constituents, Distribution in the Body, and Mechanisms of Action

3.1 Body Distribution

In rats, the highest levels of silicon were found in the bone and other connective tissues, such as skin, nails, hair, trachea, tendons, and aorta; a similar tissue distribution is also assumed in humans, although it has not been directly investigated so far. About 41% of the absorbed silica from food is excreted in urine while its concentration in the blood serum remains constant (10–31 μg/dL). Over a range of dietary intake the major part is retained in connective tissues, including bone, skin, trachea, and tendon, with another fraction being transferred to the brain.

3.2 Absorption and Bioavailability

Absorption of silicon depends on its chemical form, with the soluble orthosilicic acid (OSA, Si(OH)₄) being the most bioavailable. The absorption of silicon in the intestine is followed by a rapid increase in the serum levels of silicon, and silicon that is not retained by the body is excreted in the urine within 4–8 hours. Among the different chemical forms available, orthosilicic acid (OSA) presents the highest bioavailability, whereas the other forms have absorption inversely proportional to the degree of polymerization.

A pilot crossover bioavailability study compared a new powder presentation of silicon as orthosilicic acid with maltodextrin (Orgono Powder) to two standard OSA liquid presentations — orthosilicic acid with Equisetum arvense and Rosmarinus officinalis (G5 Siliplant) and orthosilicic acid with aloe vera (G7 Aloe); all supplements were administered at the same oral silicon dose of 21.6 mg in a randomized, double-blind, crossover post-prandial study conducted in 5 healthy men. All OSA dietary supplements provided highly bioavailable silicon, as evidenced by a significant rise in urinary excretion of silicon over a 6-hour period after the ingestion of each product, without significant differences in urinary silicon excretion among the 3 products.

3.3 Role in Collagen and Connective Tissue

Silicon is necessary for biosynthesis of collagen and glycosaminoglycan, which are required for organic bone matrix formation. Silicon is linked to glycosaminoglycans and plays an important role in the formation of cross-links between collagen and proteoglycans. Silicon has been demonstrated to enhance prolyl hydroxylase activity, stabilize collagen cross-linking, and increase bone matrix mineralization in vitro.

On the skin, it is suggested that silicon is important for optimal synthesis of collagen and for activating the hydroxylation enzymes, improving skin strength and elasticity. It was shown that physiological concentrations of orthosilicic acid stimulate fibroblasts to secrete collagen type I. In the case of hair, it is suggested that higher silicon content in the hair fiber results in a lower rate of hair loss and increased brightness.

3.4 Role in Elastin and Vascular Tissue

Silicon is abundant in arteries and plays a key role in the synthesis and stabilization of elastin fibers. Silicon plays an important role in the formation and maintenance of connective tissue, including collagen and elastin.

3.5 Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Mechanisms

Molecularly, silicon modulates inflammatory and oxidative processes by downregulating TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 expression, suppressing NF-κB activation, and normalizing antioxidant enzyme activity, suggesting adequate silicon intake may help preserve vascular structure and reduce pro-inflammatory signaling in early atherogenesis.

3.6 Interaction with Aluminum

Silicon and silicic acid reduce the bioavailability of aluminum by partially blocking its absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and hindering its reabsorption. This mechanism has been proposed as a potential protective pathway against aluminum-related neurotoxicity and cardiovascular effects.

3.7 Possible Dual Role in Connective Tissue

Research has proposed that silicon may serve in two distinct capacities: silicon may have an "essential" role in connective tissues with regard to collagen health, and the amount of silicon required for this role is minimal (small), as recently indicated from the direct quantification of silicon in the collagen fraction of rat bone. This small amount of silicon (associated with collagen) appears to be conserved in rats under different levels of dietary silicon exposure. Silicon may also have a second, "pharmacological" role in bone.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Bone Health and Osteoporosis

Epidemiological evidence. The landmark human dataset comes from the Framingham Offspring Cohort study. In order to investigate the role of dietary silicon in bone health in humans, the study by Jugdaohsingh et al. (2004) used subjects from the Framingham Osteoporosis Study — 1,251 male and 1,596 female pre- and post-menopausal participants (aged 30–87 years) who had completed two semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires and performed BMD measurements via DXA between 1996 and 2001. Dietary silicon correlated positively and significantly with BMD at all hip sites in men and premenopausal women, but not in postmenopausal women, suggesting that increased silicon intake is associated with increased cortical BMD in these populations. Silicon intake is positively related to femoral BMD in men and premenopausal women, but not in postmenopausal women; however, no significant association was found between silicon intake and lumbar BMD in any group. Being cross-sectional, this study cannot establish causality.

Randomized controlled trial evidence. Mounting evidence supports a physiological role for silicon as orthosilicic acid (OSA, Si(OH)₄) in bone formation. The effect of oral choline-stabilized orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA) on markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density (BMD) was investigated in a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Over 12 months, 136 women out of 184 randomized (with T-score at the spine indicating osteopenia) completed the study. Overall, there was a trend for ch-OSA to confer some additional benefit to calcium and vitamin D3 treatment, especially for markers of bone formation, but only the marker for type I collagen formation (PINP) was significant at 12 months for the 6 and 12 mg silicon dose. This RCT is moderate quality with a relatively small sample.

Earlier intervention data. In a small intervention study, treatment of osteoporotic subjects with silicon in the form of monomethyltrisilanol increased trabecular bone volume compared to non-treated controls. In another open intervention study, femoral density was significantly increased after intramuscular administration of silicon (50 mg) as monomethyltrisilanol twice a week for 4 months. These earlier studies were small and lacked rigorous controls.

Narrative review conclusion. A 2021 narrative review in PMC identified eight eligible human studies. Although the available scientific evidence is not considered valid enough to establish an adequate level of silicon intake, based on extrapolations from animal and human data it has been suggested that an adequate intake to promote beneficial effects for bone could be considered to be around 25 mg silicon/day. As for silicon dietary supplements, it has been shown that the combined treatment with orthosilicic acid (6 mg), calcium, and vitamin D has a potentially beneficial effect on femoral BMD compared to use of calcium and vitamin D alone.

Umbrella review. A 2024 umbrella review examining animal and human data concluded that by altering both mineral metabolism and collagen synthesis, silicon supplementation may increase bone density and strength. All these direct and indirect effects play a central role in improving and maintaining bone and cartilage quality during growth and later life, demonstrating silicon's importance as a micromineral. The reviewers noted, however, that there are still no precise indications regarding a possible role of silicon on bone health in humans.

Evidence strength: Epidemiological data is moderately consistent but cross-sectional; RCT evidence is limited to a small number of trials with mixed results on BMD endpoints; animal data is stronger. Overall, current evidence is promising but insufficient to establish definitive clinical guidelines.

4.2 Skin, Hair, and Nail Health

Mechanistic basis. On the skin, it is suggested that silicon is important for optimal synthesis of collagen and for activating the hydroxylation enzymes, improving skin strength and elasticity. Concerning the hair, it is suggested that strands with higher silicon content tend to have a lower falling rate and higher brightness. Nails are also affected by the presence of silicon, since this element is one of the predominant minerals in their composition.

Clinical trial in photodamaged skin. The presence of soft and brittle nails can indicate systemic deficiency of silicon. In a study with 50 healthy volunteers, aged between 40 and 65 years and with clear clinical signs of facial photoaging, the effect of the intake of supplements containing ch-OSA on skin, hair and nails was analyzed. Results from this 20-week trial (Barel et al., 2005) showed improvement in skin elasticity and reduced hair and nail brittleness.

Hair tensile strength trial. A separate study examined the effect of oral ch-OSA supplementation specifically on hair tensile strength and morphology in women with fine hair; results indicated measurable improvements, though the study was small.

Recent 84-day skin trial. A study evaluated the efficacy and safety of Mesoporosil® in improving skin firmness, hydration, and elasticity in women with aging skin. This 84-day interventional study involved 22 female volunteers aged 40–66 years with moderate to severe facial aging and dry skin. Participants consumed one daily tablet of Mesoporosil® containing 14 mg of silicon. Assessments were conducted at baseline, day 28, day 56, and day 84. This was an open-label, uncontrolled design, limiting its evidentiary weight.

Clinical studies evaluating safety and efficacy of silicon for skin, hair, and nails are still lacking in robust, large-scale controlled trials.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate. The mechanistic basis is well-supported in vitro; small clinical trials have reported positive outcomes for skin elasticity, hair, and nail brittleness. Larger, well-powered RCTs are needed.

4.3 Cardiovascular Health and Atherosclerosis

Mechanistic and animal data. The effect on lipids is considered as one of the mechanisms of the anti-atherogenic effect of silicon. In studies on rabbits, it was found that 88% of rabbits on an atherogenic diet developed atherosclerosis, while on an atherogenic diet with intravenous silicon addition, only 30% of rabbits showed atherosclerotic plaques. However, excessive exposure to crystalline silica (SiO₂) exerts endothelial toxicity and pro-oxidant effects, illustrating a dose-dependent influence of silicon on vascular health.

Human clinical evidence — arterial stiffness. In animal models of accelerated cardiovascular aging, a specific nutritional supplement based on silicon-enriched spirulina (SpSi) showed beneficial effects on vascular function. The study, designed as a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of this SpSi supplement on aging-related changes in vascular function among healthy older adults; 120 healthy volunteers aged 60–75 years were enrolled and randomly assigned to either the SpSi group (n = 60) or placebo group (n = 60). In healthy elderly individuals, SpSi supplementation improved high-normal blood pressure and aortic pulse wave velocity, suggesting enhanced vascular function. This 2025 RCT is one of the first controlled human trials specifically targeting vascular outcomes.

Observational / pilot data. Most available evidence derives from experimental studies, whereas human data remain limited and largely observational.

Evidence strength: Mostly animal and in vitro data with a single promising RCT on vascular function published in 2025. Human cardiovascular data are very limited; the anti-atherogenic role of silicon in humans remains unconfirmed.

4.4 Neurological Health and Alzheimer's Disease — Aluminum Reduction

A possible association between the aluminum and silicon levels in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been suggested. It has been reported that silicon might have a protective effect for limiting oral aluminum absorption. The mechanism of the toxic effect of aluminum on the brain has not been finally elucidated, but the following factors are considered: cross-linking of hyperphosphorylated proteins, leading to the formation of tau protein; promoting the expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and increasing the level of β-40 and β-42 fragments in the brain, which may lead to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles; increase in oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction due to decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes; and damage to the cholinergic system.

A controlled clinical study of Alzheimer's disease showed that drinking up to 1 liter of silicon-rich mineral water daily for 12 weeks increased urinary aluminum excretion. The results of a number of studies suggest that dietary silicon supplementation could be of therapeutic value for preventing chronic aluminum accumulation in the brain, and hence, be a potential therapy for AD. However, it must be noted that controversy remains about whether aluminum accumulation in the brain is a cause or a consequence of AD.

Low silicon levels in drinking water increase the risk of cognitive impairment due to high aluminum intake.

Evidence strength: Mechanistic evidence for silicon–aluminum antagonism is reasonably well-established. The link to Alzheimer's disease prevention remains speculative and controversial; there are no large clinical trials confirming that silicon supplementation prevents or treats dementia in humans.

4.5 Gut Microbiome

Silicon is a proposed nutritional trace element with potential roles in metabolic, neurobiological, endocrine, inflammatory, and bone-related processes. A 2025 critical narrative review in Nutrients examined silicon's potential role in gut microbiome modulation, though the review authors emphasized that direct human data are sparse and that this represents an early-stage research area requiring further controlled investigation.

Evidence strength: Preliminary and exploratory; no robust clinical evidence currently available.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Silicon

• Skeletal system: Silicon improves bone matrix quality and facilitates bone mineralization. It supports osteoblast activity and collagen cross-linking in bone extracellular matrix.
• Connective tissue: There is a growing body of evidence concerning the significant role of silicon in development and composition of both connective and bone tissue.
• Skin: Skin aging is associated with a decrease in silicon and hyaluronic acid levels in connective tissue that results in a loss of moisture and elasticity.
• Hair and nails: Decreasing silicon levels can lead to thinning hair, weaker nails, and loss of skin elasticity, all of which are common as people age.
• Vascular system: Silicon is abundant in arteries and plays a key role in the synthesis and stabilization of elastin fibers.
• Neurological system: Silicon's competitive antagonism with aluminum has been proposed as a mechanism relevant to neurodegenerative processes. Low silicon levels in drinking water increase the risk of cognitive impairment due to high aluminum intake.
• Cartilage and joints: Silicon has been advocated for strengthening bones and connective tissue due to its silica content, often used in treating fractures, osteoarthritis, and promoting hair, skin, and nail health.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Dietary intake ranges. In humans, silicon intake ranges between 12 to 62 mg/day, depending on diet and location. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the estimated average dietary intake of silicon is 20–50 mg/day, corresponding to 0.3–0.8 mg silicon/kg body weight/day for a 60-kg person, and these intakes are unlikely to cause adverse effects. However, no recommended dietary allowance for silicon has been established.

Suggested supplemental dose for bone health. Based on extrapolations from animal and human model data, it has been suggested that an adequate intake to promote beneficial effects for bone could be considered to be around 25 mg silicon/day.

Doses used in key clinical trials.

• Spector et al. (2008), bone formation RCT: Oral choline-stabilized orthosilicic acid was investigated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial over 12 months in 136 women. The trial tested doses of 6 mg and 12 mg silicon per day as ch-OSA as adjuncts to calcium and vitamin D3.
• OSA bioavailability crossover study: All dietary supplements were administered at the same silicon oral dose of 21.6 mg in a randomized, double-blind, crossover post-prandial study conducted in 5 healthy men.
• OSA-VC supplement (EFSA assessment): The OSA-VC supplement was proposed to be used in a standard dose of 15 mL/day of dietary supplement (containing 98.9% OSA-VC complex), providing 10.1–18.2 mg silicon/day.
• Mesoporosil skin trial: Participants consumed one daily tablet of Mesoporosil® containing 14 mg of silicon.
• German BfR maximum levels for food supplements: The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) derived maximum amounts of 350 mg of silicon in the form of silicon dioxide and 100 mg of silicon in the form of silicic acid (silica gel), per recommended daily dose of an individual food supplement product for persons aged 15 and over.

7. Safety Considerations and Interactions

7.1 General Safety Profile

There is no evidence that silicon naturally occurring in food and water and ingested with the diet is harmful to health. The UK Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals (EVM) carried out a risk assessment and set a safe upper level for supplemental daily exposure to silicon at 700 mg silicon/day for adults over a lifetime. In terms of elemental silicon, this is equivalent to a safe upper level of 12 mg silicon/kg body weight/day for a 60-kg adult for supplemental silicon. The EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) estimated that the typical dietary intake of 20–50 mg silicon/day was unlikely to cause adverse effects.

The FDA granted silicon dioxide GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status based on decades of toxicology data. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reached a similar conclusion, approving silicon dioxide (E 551) as a food additive.

7.2 Renal Excretion and Kidney Function

Silicon is primarily eliminated by the kidneys. The kidneys efficiently clear absorbed silicon, maintaining stable serum concentrations. Renal clearance of silicon is approximately 90 ml/min, close to the glomerular filtration rate, confirming that silicon is freely filtered and not reabsorbed by the renal tubules. In individuals with severe renal impairment, excess silicon is eliminated by renal excretion as silicic acid; when kidney function is impaired (stages 4–5 according to GFR), assessment by a nephrologist is recommended.

7.3 Silica Gel and Kidney Stone Risk

The EFSA Panel noted that the association between the use of silicate antacid and kidney stones could be incidental, but it could not conduct a conclusive risk assessment of silicates due to the lack of data. This potential risk applies to specific silicate forms (as antacids) rather than to dietary silicon or low-dose supplements.

7.4 Crystalline vs. Amorphous Silica — Critical Distinction

Excessive exposure to crystalline silica (SiO₂) exerts endothelial toxicity and pro-oxidant effects, illustrating a dose-dependent influence of silicon on vascular health. Occupational inhalation of crystalline silica is associated with silicosis and increased lung cancer risk; however, this is entirely distinct from dietary or oral supplementation with amorphous silicon compounds at physiological doses and is not relevant to supplement use.

7.5 Species Confusion with Horsetail Supplements

The only concern with horsetail would be that the correct species is used. Equisetum palustre is another species of horsetail which contains toxic alkaloids and is a well-known livestock poison. Due to a lack of clear safety information, horsetail should be avoided during pregnancy and breast-feeding.

7.6 Pharmaceutical Interactions

No pharmacokinetic drug interactions with soluble silicon compounds have been formally documented in the published literature. Given that excess silicon is eliminated by renal excretion, any condition impairing kidney function warrants evaluation before high-dose supplementation. Based on its mechanism of reducing aluminum absorption, silicon could theoretically reduce the efficacy of aluminum-containing compounds (e.g., aluminum-based antacids or phosphate binders), though specific clinical interaction studies are lacking.

7.7 Horsetail-Specific Cautions

Horsetail contains high concentrations of silicic acid, up to 14%, and is sometimes used as an organic source of silicon. It should be used with caution in patients with oedema due to impaired heart function. Its diuretic properties may be relevant when taken with other diuretic medications, though specific interaction data are limited.

7.8 Bioavailability Variability as a Safety-Relevant Factor

There are different forms of silicon supplements available, and the most important consideration for selecting the best option is related to safety and bioavailability. Silicon supplements are widely used, though there is wide variation in silicon bioavailability, ranging from values below 1% up to values close to 50%, depending on the chemical form. The wide variation means that nominal doses on supplement labels may substantially misrepresent the amount of silicon actually absorbed, complicating dose–response interpretation.

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