Salmon oil

Salmon Oil

1. Identity: Botanical/Chemical Names, Natural Source, and Common Forms

Taxonomic and Chemical Identity

Salmon oil is a lipid extract derived primarily from the tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and, to a lesser extent, from Pacific salmon species of the genus Oncorhynchus (including O. tshawytscha, O. nerka, O. keta, and others). Salmon oil is one of the richest sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. It belongs to the broader class of marine fish oils and is classified in commerce as a long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) dietary supplement.

The primary biologically active constituents are two long-chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3). Research into salmon oil has focused particularly on obtaining eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) concentrates from refined commercial salmon oil. Smaller amounts of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 22:5 n-3) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3 n-3) are also present. The oil also contains oleic acid (18:1 n-9), palmitic acid (16:0), and palmitoleic acid (16:1 n-7), among other fatty acids.

A distinguishing characteristic of salmon oil compared with generic fish oil preparations is the presence of astaxanthin, a ketocarotenoid pigment. Astaxanthin has the molecular formula C₄₀H₅₂O₄, with a molar mass of 596.84 g/mol. The primary stereoisomer of astaxanthin found in wild Atlantic salmon is 3S, 3′S, which occurs as the free form. Astaxanthin concentrations are higher in wild-caught compared to farmed salmon.

Fatty Acid and Nutritional Profile

Atlantic salmon is an important source of healthy long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids. A 3-ounce (85 g) cooked serving of farmed Atlantic salmon delivers approximately 1.24 g DHA and 0.59 g EPA; wild Atlantic salmon delivers approximately 1.22 g DHA and 0.35 g EPA per serving. In the fat fraction of Atlantic salmon fillets, around 50% of the EPA and around 80% of the DHA is located in the sn-2 position of triacylglycerols. This positional distribution has been associated with differences in lipid-lowering bioactivity.

Farmed Atlantic salmon, as an oily fish, contains a rich source of the health-promoting long-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. However, EPA and DHA content in farmed salmon is diet-dependent. Comparing fatty acid compositions of over 3,000 Scottish Atlantic salmon farmed between 2006 and 2015, terrestrial fatty acids significantly increased alongside a decrease in EPA and DHA levels, requiring double portion sizes as compared to 2006 in order to satisfy recommended EPA + DHA intake levels endorsed by health advisory organisations. Nevertheless, farmed Scottish salmon still delivers more EPA + DHA than most other fish species and all terrestrial livestock.

Common Forms and Preparations

Salmon oil is available commercially in several forms:

• Softgel capsules: These supplements typically contain omega-3s in the triglyceride form. Softgels are the most widely marketed form and range in EPA+DHA content by product.
• Liquid oil: Bottled liquid salmon oil is used directly or added to food. It is especially common for veterinary (pet) supplementation.
• Enteric-coated capsules: Designed to reduce gastrointestinal side effects and "fishy" aftertaste by delaying release until the small intestine.
• Micellar/emulsified formulations: There is evidence that emulsified delivery matrices containing micelles of triacylglycerides and ethyl esters are able to provide superior oral bioavailability over regular fish oils alone.

Formulations of omega-3 dietary supplements vary widely, so it is important to check product labels to determine the types and amounts of omega-3s in these products. Salmon oil may be sold as crude, refined, or concentrated. Concentration via urea complexation or molecular distillation can increase EPA and DHA percentages well above the levels found in the unprocessed oil.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Indigenous Arctic and Sub-Arctic Peoples

The sustained dietary consumption of oil-rich fatty fish and marine mammals by circumpolar peoples represents the most documented historical use of marine oils including salmon oil. The traditional diet of Inuit people comprises large amounts of fish and marine mammals that are rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The Inuit people of the Arctic used rendered aquatic mammals to preserve the meat for summer, and ate the fat raw and partially frozen in the winter; no part of the animal was wasted.

The origins of modern fish oil and omega-3 research are directly traceable to observations of Inuit health. In the 1970s, a pair of Danish researchers ventured north of the Arctic Circle and, studying a scattered Inuit population, concluded that eating plenty of fish and other marine animals protected this group from heart disease. Omega-3 research really started to pick up the pace with the indigenous peoples of Greenland. Throughout much of this decade, a group of Danish researchers led by Jørn Dyerberg and H.O. Bang documented their diet, along with their plasma lipid profiles and blood fatty acid levels, and it was in these studies that they "discovered" omega-3 fatty acids — in both the diets and blood. Following their stint in Greenland, the researchers published a landmark paper in The Lancet on July 15, 1978, entitled "Eicosapentaenoic acid and prevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis?", presenting data supporting the idea that EPA could substitute for arachidonic acid in the cyclo-oxygenase pathway.

It is important to note that the original epidemiological claim — that the Inuit had markedly low rates of cardiovascular disease — was never rigorously established. The two Danish researchers never proved that the Inuit had low rates of heart disease. They never tested it at all. Subsequent genetic research revealed that the Inuit on their traditional diet rich in fat from marine mammals seemed quite healthy with a low incidence of cardiovascular disease, but they have unique genetic adaptations to this diet, meaning results cannot be extrapolated to other populations.

Pacific Northwest Indigenous Peoples

Salmon oil formed an integral part of the food culture of Pacific Northwest coastal peoples for thousands of years. The cornerstone of the diet of indigenous peoples such as the Gitksan and Witsuwit'en was fat and protein obtained from the combination of fish and game, achieved in the course of fishing, hunting, plant harvesting, sharing and barter. Rendered salmon oil — referred to locally as "grease" — was used as a condiment, a food preservative, and a trade commodity. Dry-smoked salmon, a protein-rich foodstuff, was supplemented with additional fatty foods such as the oil (locally called "grease") rendered from freshly caught oolichan as well as from salmon, groundhog, beaver and big game.

Researchers have studied the consumption of fats and oils among native peoples in fifteen locations around the world to determine from what sources various peoples received their essential fatty acids. Since the human body cannot produce its own essential fatty acids (essential to brain, eye, heart, and kidney health), understanding the sources and methods for consumption has helped explain how indigenous peoples relied on access to their native lands and wildlife. The rendering of salmon and oolichan (eulachon) oil by coastal peoples involved maceration and heat-rendering techniques refined over millennia, producing oils that were then stored in containers and traded inland along what became known as "grease trails."

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds: Mechanisms of Action

EPA and DHA: Primary Active Constituents

Omega-3 fatty acids are derived from food. They cannot be manufactured in the body. The human body can synthesize EPA and DHA from alpha-linolenic acid through a series of elongation and desaturation steps. However, this biosynthesis pathway is relatively inefficient, necessitating direct intake from dietary sources or supplements to achieve optimal levels.

EPA and DHA are able to partly inhibit a number of aspects of inflammation including leukocyte chemotaxis, adhesion molecule expression and leukocyte-endothelial adhesive interactions, production of eicosanoids like prostaglandins and leukotrienes from the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, production of inflammatory cytokines, and T-helper 1 lymphocyte reactivity. In addition, EPA gives rise to eicosanoids that often have lower biological potency than those produced from arachidonic acid, and EPA and DHA give rise to anti-inflammatory and inflammation-resolving mediators called resolvins, protectins, and maresins.

At a cellular and molecular level, mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory actions of n-3 fatty acids include altered cell membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition, disruption of lipid rafts, inhibition of activation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) so reducing expression of inflammatory genes, and activation of the anti-inflammatory transcription factor NR1C3.

At a sufficiently high dose, marine n-3 PUFAs exert a range of anti-inflammatory actions including decreased adhesion molecule expression and adhesive interactions between leucocytes and endothelial cells, a decreased chemotactic response of leucocytes, decreased production of eicosanoids from arachidonic acid, increased production of eicosanoids with lower biological potency from EPA, increased production of anti-inflammatory and inflammation-resolving resolvins from EPA and DHA (and protectins from DHA), decreased production of the classic inflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-1β and IL-6, and decreased T-cell reactivity. Overall, these observations indicate a shift from a strongly pro-inflammatory environment to one of reduced inflammation, lowered cell responsiveness and increased resolution of inflammation.

Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators (SPMs)

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can reduce depressive symptoms and exert anti-inflammatory action putatively by the production of distinct n-3 PUFA-derived metabolites, such as resolvins D (RvD) and E (RvE) series, maresins (MaR), and protectins (PD), which are collectively named specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) and act as strong anti-inflammatory agents. DHA gives rise to the D-series resolvins (RvD1–RvD6), protectins, and maresins — key lipid mediators that collectively promote the resolution phase of inflammation.

DHA and Neurological Function

DHA is the most abundant omega-3 fatty acid in the brain, where it plays a critical role in maintaining neuronal structure and function. Its neuroprotective properties are thought to stem from the regulation of synaptic plasticity, the reduction of neuroinflammation, and the enhancement of neuronal membrane fluidity. This indication is supported by data of neurobiological research, as highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) are highly concentrated in neural phospholipids and are important components of the neuronal cell membrane. They modulate the mechanisms of brain cell signaling, including the dopaminergic and serotonergic pathways.

Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin is a lipophilic compound that can be dissolved in solvents and oils. Salmon is a commonly consumed fish rich in astaxanthin carotenoids and polyunsaturated fatty acids with inflammatory and metabolic benefits. In studies of salmon consumption, astaxanthin was higher in human plasma after a Mediterranean-style diet in which farmed salmon was consumed for five weeks; concentrations decreased back to baseline after a four-week washout and increased again after a second dietary intervention. LC-QTOF MS analysis of all Mediterranean-style diet foods consumed showed that astaxanthin was discovered in salmon only. The antioxidant capacity of astaxanthin is thought to contribute to the overall anti-inflammatory profile of salmon oil, though direct human clinical evidence specifically attributing health outcomes to astaxanthin in salmon oil supplements remains limited.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Cardiovascular Health

Triglyceride Reduction

The most consistent and best-established clinical evidence for salmon oil / fish oil omega-3 supplementation is the reduction of elevated blood triglycerides. Getting more EPA and DHA from foods or dietary supplements lowers triglyceride levels. A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 RCTs encompassing 2,061 patients with coronary heart disease found that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation significantly reduced circulating levels of triglycerides (standardized mean difference [SMD] = −0.25, 95% CI = −0.38 to −0.11) and total cholesterol (SMD = −0.12, 95% CI = −0.23 to −0.02), with no significant impact on the levels of HDL-C, LDL-C, or arterial plaque volume. The dose-response analysis revealed a linear relationship between omega-3 intake and triglyceride reduction.

Major Cardiovascular Events

A meta-analysis of 28 randomized controlled trials involving 136,965 individuals found that omega-3 fatty acids were associated with a lower risk of major cardiovascular events (RR 0.94; 95% CI, 0.89–1.00; P = 0.049) and cardiac death (RR 0.92). However, results across trials are heterogeneous and not all agree. Two studies conducted in 2020, namely the STRENGTH and OMEMI trials, demonstrated no significant benefit from omega-3 fatty acid administration, a finding at odds with previous meta-analyses. The effect and association of omega-3 fatty acid intake and biomarker levels with cardiovascular clinical and intermediate outcomes remains controversial.

Regarding cardiovascular mortality specifically, one meta-analysis found that omega-3 PUFA significantly reduced revascularization (HR: 0.90, 95% CI: 0.81–1.00) and cardiovascular mortality (HR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.85–0.97). For some health conditions, the evidence for benefits from seafood is stronger than the evidence for omega-3 supplements. Other nutrients in seafood besides omega-3s may play a role in its benefits.

Blood Pressure

Multiple studies report modest reductions in blood pressure in people who take fish oil supplements. The reductions are generally modest and are most evident at higher doses in individuals with hypertension or elevated cardiovascular risk.

Atrial Fibrillation Signal

A clinically important safety finding that emerged from large trials is an apparent dose-dependent increase in atrial fibrillation (AF) risk with high-dose omega-3 supplementation. Two large clinical trials completed found that taking 4 g/day of omega-3 supplements for several years slightly increased the risk of atrial fibrillation in people with CVD or at high risk of CVD. A meta-analysis of five RCTs (50,277 patients) where the dose of fish oils varied from 0.84 to 4 g per day found that omega-3 supplements are associated with an increased likelihood of developing atrial fibrillation in people with high blood lipids. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation is associated with increased AF risk, particularly in trials that used high doses. Several factors should be considered including dose, type, and formulation.

Notably, a large 2025 biomarker-based analysis from the UK Biobank found a contrasting result: higher circulating blood levels of omega-3 fatty acids are associated with a significantly lower risk of developing atrial fibrillation. These findings correct the conclusions of previous studies that mistakenly reported (because of an improper statistical analysis) that fish oil supplement use increased risk for atrial fibrillation. This area of evidence remains actively debated.

4.2 Brain Health, Cognition, and Mental Health

Brain Development and General Cognition

Polyunsaturated fatty acids — especially DHA — play a vital role in brain and nervous system function by supporting membrane integrity and neuronal activity. DHA may exert neuroprotective effects through anti-inflammatory mechanisms, in part by competing with pro-inflammatory omega-6 fatty acids. Based on these pathways, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids are hypothesized to offer protective effects against cognitive decline.

A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 58 studies examining omega-3 supplementation and cognitive function found that each 2,000 mg/day of omega-3 supplementation showed a significant improvement in attention (SMD: 0.98; 95% CI: 0.41–1.54; GRADE = low), and perceptual speed (SMD: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.05–0.95; GRADE = moderate). The GRADE ratings reflect the generally low-to-moderate quality of this evidence base.

Alzheimer's Disease and Cognitive Decline

A systematic review explored the impact of omega-3 supplementation, particularly DHA, on cognitive decline in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Omega-3 fatty acids are widely recognized for their neuroprotective properties, but the evidence regarding their efficacy in mitigating cognitive decline remains mixed. Through analysis of eleven RCTs, DHA supplementation demonstrated cognitive benefits, particularly in memory and hippocampal volume preservation, in some studies involving early-stage cognitive decline, while others reported negligible effects, particularly in more advanced Alzheimer's disease. DHA has exhibited a protective effect against amyloid beta (Aβ) accumulation and its associated oxidative stress, inflammation, synaptic loss, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles that occur in dementia. Overall, evidence in established Alzheimer's disease is weak; early-stage benefits require further confirmation in larger trials.

Depression and Mood

The existing body of evidence demonstrates that omega-3 fatty acids, in particular EPA and DHA, have antidepressant effects that can be attributed to their modulation of neuroinflammation, neurotransmitter function, and neuroplasticity. Nevertheless, clinical trials of omega-3 supplementation have yielded inconsistent results.

Omega-3 fatty acids seem to be useful in preventing and improving depressive symptoms at a low dose of 1 g/day; EPA seems to be more efficacious than DHA; patients with more severe depression showed greater treatment gains. The most recent meta-analysis of clinical trials concluded that supplements containing EPA ≥60% of total EPA+DHA, in a dose range of 200 to 2,200 mg/day of EPA in excess of DHA, were effective against primary depression. However, due to the considerable heterogeneity of the investigations, additional large cohort studies and well-designed clinical trials are warranted.

4.3 Pregnancy and Infant Neurodevelopment

During pregnancy and breastfeeding, eating 8 to 12 ounces per week of fish and other seafood may improve baby health. Consuming omega-3 fatty acids may improve pregnancy outcomes. An increase in dietary omega-3s during pregnancy has been shown to benefit both the mother and baby.

A 2019 review of the effects of omega-3s on mental health during pregnancy found that 9 out of 14 studies (3,543 participants) showed that high consumption of DHA, either alone or with other fatty acids, may reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety during gestation. However, none of the studies showed omega-3s had an effect on depression or anxiety during the postpartum period. The authors recommend further research.

4.4 Inflammation and Rheumatological Conditions

The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of EPA and DHA have led to their study in rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory conditions. EPA may attenuate oxidative stress, inflammation, cancers, hyperlipidemia, neurodegenerative diseases and other diseases, thereby exhibiting multiple beneficial effects on human health. Clinical evidence in rheumatoid arthritis shows that fish oil supplementation can modestly reduce joint tenderness and morning stiffness, though these effects are generally considered adjunctive to standard pharmacological treatment. Evidence specifically from salmon oil (as distinct from general fish oil) in human rheumatological trials is limited; most RCT evidence uses standardized EPA/DHA preparations rather than specifically sourced salmon oil.

4.5 ADHD

There is some evidence that ADHD could be related to lower dietary intake of omega-3 and higher dietary intake of omega-6 fatty acids. However, research on omega-3 supplements for ADHD has had conflicting results. It is uncertain whether omega-3s have any benefit for symptoms of this condition. This area remains preliminary.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Salmon Oil

• Cardiovascular system: Triglyceride reduction, blood pressure modulation, anti-thrombotic properties (antiplatelet activity), and contested effects on major cardiovascular events.
• Central nervous system: DHA is a structural constituent of neuronal membranes; associations with brain development, cognitive function across the lifespan, and mood regulation.
• Immune and inflammatory systems: Modulation of eicosanoid production, cytokine signaling, and the SPM (resolvin/protectin/maresins) pathway.
• Endocrine/metabolic system: Effects on lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity (under study), and hepatic fat metabolism.
• Reproductive system and fetal development: DHA is critical for fetal brain and retinal development; omega-3 intake during pregnancy is associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes.
• Eye health: DHA is a structural component of retinal photoreceptors; some clinical evidence for benefit in dry eye disease using omega-3 supplementation.
• Musculoskeletal system: Adjunctive anti-inflammatory role in joint diseases; some evidence for bone metabolism modulation via omega-3/omega-6 ratio.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

For people with heart disease, the American Heart Association recommends consuming about 1 g per day EPA plus DHA, preferably from oily fish, but supplements are an option. The AHA does not recommend omega-3 supplements for people who do not have a high risk of cardiovascular disease.

According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), long-term consumption of EPA and DHA supplements at combined doses of up to about 5 g/day appears to be safe. These doses have not been shown to cause bleeding problems or affect immune function, glucose homeostasis, or lipid peroxidation. Similarly, the FDA has concluded that dietary supplements providing no more than 5 g/day EPA and DHA are safe when used as recommended.

Specific doses reported across clinical study areas include:

• Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease (high-dose prescription): High-dose marine omega-3 was defined in systematic reviews as ≥3.0 g/day (or in Japan 1.8 g/day at purity ≥90%).
• Cardiovascular prevention trials (STRENGTH/OMEMI): Participants received 4 g/day omega-3 carboxylic acids in addition to their usual therapies, including statins, for a projected trial duration of 4.5 years.
• FDA-approved prescription omega-3 reference dose: Lovaza® capsules contain 1,860 mg of EPA and 1,500 mg of DHA per day and are FDA-approved for the reduction of triglyceride levels in adults with severe hypertriglyceridemia.
• Depression: A dose of approximately 1 g/day EPA has been reported in studies showing benefit for depressive symptoms, with EPA appearing more efficacious than DHA.
• Atrial fibrillation meta-analysis: The dose of fish oils in contributing trials varied from 0.84 to 4 g per day.
• Dry eye disease trials: A daily dose of 1,680 mg EPA and 560 mg DHA was used in the PRN study design, where significant separation from placebo was observed in symptom scores, tear break-up time, and tear osmolarity.
• General health (adult): The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended 450–500 milligrams of omega-3 fatty acids per day.
• Coronary heart disease (dietary guideline level): Those with coronary heart disease should consume 1 gram of omega-3 fatty acid per day, preferably from fatty fish.

Fish oil supplements come in liquid, capsule, and pill form. Studies have compared standard softgels, enteric-coated softgels, and micellar formulations providing omega-3 fatty acids. Bioavailability differences between formulations are an active area of investigation.

7. Safety Considerations and Interactions

General Safety Profile

Commonly reported side effects of omega-3 supplements are usually mild. These include unpleasant taste, bad breath, heartburn, nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, headache, and odoriferous sweat.

Anticoagulant Interactions and Bleeding

Doses of 2–15 g/day EPA and/or DHA might increase bleeding time by reducing platelet aggregation. However, actual clinical bleeding risk at commonly used supplement doses appears low. A retrospective analysis of 573 warfarin users found that fish and krill oils did not significantly alter warfarin time in therapeutic range (TTR) or bleeding incidence, even when compared by gender. Omega-3 supplementation with fish and krill oil does not significantly affect long-term warfarin control and bleeding and thromboembolic events when consumed concurrently in patients managed at an anticoagulation clinic.

Fish oil can have antiplatelet effects when taken with warfarin, but most research indicates that doses of 3–6 g/day fish oil do not significantly affect the anticoagulant status of patients taking warfarin.

Atrial Fibrillation Risk at High Doses

As noted in the cardiovascular evidence section, two large clinical trials found that taking 4 g/day of omega-3 supplements for several years slightly increased the risk of atrial fibrillation in people with CVD or at high risk of CVD. This risk signal is specifically associated with high therapeutic doses rather than conventional supplement doses and remains a subject of ongoing scientific debate, with more recent biomarker-based analyses challenging the earlier dose-based findings.

Contaminants

The species source and processing method of salmon oil significantly affect its contaminant profile. Wild salmon can accumulate environmental pollutants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and methylmercury from their marine environment, though levels in refined, molecularly distilled commercial salmon oil products are generally reduced substantially by processing. It is important to choose fish that are higher in EPA and DHA and lower in mercury.

LDL Cholesterol

At high doses, some omega-3 preparations (particularly those rich in DHA) may raise LDL-cholesterol levels. This effect is less pronounced with EPA-dominant formulations and is one consideration noted in the context of high-dose prescription omega-3 use.

Vitamin A Toxicity (Distinction from Cod Liver Oil)

Fish liver oil supplements, such as cod liver oil, contain EPA and DHA, and they also contain vitamins A and D in amounts that vary from product to product. Vitamins A and D can be harmful in excessive amounts. Salmon oil derived from fish muscle/body tissue — as distinct from liver oil — does not carry this same risk of preformed vitamin A toxicity.

Pregnancy Safety

Omega-3 supplementation during pregnancy is considered safe within standard dosing ranges and is associated with potential neurodevelopmental benefits for the fetus. The main caution specific to pregnancy concerns the source: whole fish consumption carries a mercury exposure risk that oil supplements — if adequately refined — do not share to the same degree. During pregnancy and breastfeeding, eating 8 to 12 ounces per week of fish and other seafood may improve baby health. It is important to choose fish that are higher in EPA and DHA and lower in mercury.

References

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• NIH Office of Dietary Supplements — Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Consumer Fact Sheet
• NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health — Omega-3 Supplements: What You Need To Know
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