Rose oil

Other Names

Attar of roseAttar of rosesBulgarian rose oilBulgarian rose ottoCabbage rose oilDamask rose oilEssence de RoseEssence of roseEssenza di roseFrench rose oilHuile volatile de Rose pâleIndian rose oilIranian rose oilKazanlik rose oilMay roseOil of roseOleum RosaeOleum RosarumOtto of roseOtto of rosesPink damask rose oilRosa alba L.Rosa belgica Mill.Rosa calendarum Münchh.Rosa centifolia L.Rosa damascena Mill.Rosa gallica L.Rosa gallica var. damascenaRosa rugosa Thunb.Rosa × bifera (Poir.) Pers.Rosa × damascenaRose absoluteRose attarRose de DamasRose de MaiRose de puteauxRose de tous les moisRose essenceRose of CastileRose ottoRosenölRuh GulabTaif rose oilTrigintipetala rose oilTurkish rose oilWard (Arabic name for rose/rose oil)

Synopsis

Rose Oil (Rosa damascena Mill. and Related Species): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Names, Natural Sources, and Commercial Forms

1.1 Botanical and Regulatory Identity

Rose oil is derived primarily from Rosa damascena Mill., commonly known as Damask rose, which belongs to the Rosaceae family and is widely celebrated for its perfuming property. Rose oil is defined under ISO standard 9842:2003 as "the essential oil obtained by steam distillation of the flowers of Rosa × damascena Miller, of the Rosaceae family, cultivated in Turkey, Morocco and Bulgaria." A second commercially significant species is Rosa centifolia, with most rose absolute derived from the Damask rose, which is widely cultivated in Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, India, Russia and China.

Rosa damascena Mill. is the hybrid between R. gallica and related Rosa species, and is a thorny shrub, up to 2.5 m in height, that blooms in the spring. Flowers have an average of 33 petals, which are arranged in a corymb, and can range in color from white to light red; most Rosa damascena flowers are light pink or magenta in hue.

Rose oil is also known as rose otto, attar of roses, or rose essence. These names are often used interchangeably, depending on the extraction method and region of production.

1.2 Commercial Forms and Extraction Methods

Rose ottos are extracted through steam distillation, while rose absolutes are obtained through solvent extraction, the absolute being used more commonly in perfumery. The solvent extraction method involves agitating the rose petals in a solvent such as hexane. This isolates the aromatic compounds as well as pigments and wax. The extracts then undergo vacuum processing to remove the solvent, leaving a wax-like material known as the "concrete." Rose absolute is then produced from the concrete through further ethanol washing.

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction is an additional method, yielding a concrete that may be marketed as a concrete, absolute or CO₂ extract. Steam distillation, the most common method, yields a pure and concentrated oil, while solvent extraction is more cost-effective but may alter purity. CO₂ extraction, a modern technique, offers a clean, high-quality oil without the use of solvents.

The petals of R. × damascena are used to make different products like rosewater, rose oil, and rose absolute. These products are used in perfumery and the food industry for flavoring — producing pleasant flavors in sorbets, sweets, confectionery, and desserts.

Through solvent extraction, Rosa damascena produced concrete oil at 0.19% on petal weight basis; absolute oil yield was 0.14%. The total world production of Rosa damascena oil and Rosa damascena concrete (flower wax) is estimated to be 15–20 tons.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ancient Origins

Throughout human history, rose has been the symbol of love, purity, devotion, inspiration, beauty, elegance, compassion, spirituality, and sensuality. It is thought to have originated in Central Asia and is mentioned in the ancient medical texts of China, India, Persia, Assyria, Egypt, Greece and Rome.

Fossil records suggest that wild roses have bloomed on Earth for at least 40 million years, but the first written records appear about 5,000 years ago on Mesopotamian clay tablets. One such tablet tells how Sargon I, King of Akkadia (2684–2630 BC), returned from a military campaign with rose saplings—likely from what is now southeastern Turkey. Assyrian texts describe boiling petals to make a precious, fragrant water, so valuable it was measured in grains.

2.2 Persian and Islamic Traditions

The production technique of rose oil originated in Iran. The history of rose oil spans centuries and cultures, beginning in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran), where it was first distilled. The Persians revered this essential oil as a symbol of luxury, using it in perfumes, healing ointments, and ceremonial rituals. The cultivation of this plant has ancient origins, and Kashan was one of the first mountainous regions of Iran dealing with its cultivation.

The Islamic Golden Age further advanced the distillation techniques and uses of essential oils, with scholars documenting their properties and benefits extensively. Middle Eastern scholars refined the art of distillation, producing the first true rose oils. These early methods—remarkably similar to traditional stills still used in parts of India and Turkey—transformed fresh blossoms into the rose otto and rose water still known today.

R. damascena has an important position in Iranian traditional medicine. It is prescribed for the management of chest and abdominal pain, constipation, digestive disorders, menstrual bleeding and liver ailments.

2.3 Indian (Ayurvedic and Mughal) Traditions

From Persia, the knowledge of rose essential oil production spread to India during the Mughal Empire, where it became a staple in royal traditions. Mughal emperors used rose oil and rose water in elaborate rituals, gardens, and Ayurvedic medicine, highlighting its importance in both luxury and wellness. In India, roses have been integral to Ayurvedic medicine and cultural practices for centuries. Rosewater is used as a cooling and soothing agent, balancing the pitta dosha.

2.4 Greek and Roman Traditions

The Greeks valued rose highly and used rosewater in bathing rituals, perfumery and medicine. In classical medical texts, rose was described as cooling, soothing and restorative, and was widely used for its healing properties. The Greeks and Romans praised roses for medicine: Pliny the Elder recommended rose fragrance to "clear the brain," while Dioscorides wrote of its cooling, astringent properties for ailments.

2.5 Traditional Chinese Medicine

In China, where Rosa chinensis has a long history, roses are valued for their beauty and medicinal properties. They are used in traditional Chinese medicine to regulate qi, improve circulation, and alleviate emotional imbalances.

2.6 Traditional Preparations

The flowers were prized for their beauty and fragrance; the petals, leaves and hips (the fleshy fruit containing seeds) were made into jams and infusions for food and medicine, and oils and salves were used cosmetically. It has been used for many digestive problems such as constipation and as a laxative. Eye drops of R. damascena have been used in ophthalmic disorders.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Volatile Fraction (Essential Oil)

The identified major compounds in the essential oil include β-citronellol (14.5–47.5%), nonadecane (10.5–40.5%), geraniol (5.5–18%), and nerol; kaempferol was also found among the major components. The main constituents of essential oils from Kashan-cultivated plants have been reported as β-citronellol (23%), nonadecane (16%), geraniol (16%) and heneicosane (5%).

Yield of oils has been reported to vary from approximately 0.08 to 0.132%, with citronellol (9.18–36.70%), geraniol (0.47–12.82%), nonadecane (10.36–22.73%), heneicosane (11.43–31.7%), and 1-nonadecene (3.93–6.03%) detected as main compounds across different growing regions of Iran.

β-Damascenone, β-ionone and rose oxides are key flavour components that contribute to the distinctive scent of the rose. Despite their low concentration, β-damascone and β-damascenone are considered important markers for rose oil quality. β-Damascenone has a very low odour threshold of 0.002 ppb.

Phenyl ethyl alcohol prevails in the concrete fraction, representing approximately 44–47% from multiple Iranian growing regions. GC-MS analysis of absolute oil shows that phenylethyl alcohol, citronellol, and phenolic terpenoids are three major components comprising more than 60% of total rose absolute.

3.2 Non-Volatile Phytochemicals

The main group of chemical components in rose flowers includes phenolic acids (e.g., chlorogenic, caffeic, gallic, and coumaric acids), flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, and epicatechin), terpenoids (e.g., β-citronellol, geraniol, and nerol), and anthocyanins.

The medicinal functions of Rosaceae are partly attributed to their abundance of phenolic compounds. Phenolics possess a wide range of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, free-radical scavenging, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, and antidepressant actions.

3.3 Geographic and Climatic Variation in Composition

Quantitative and qualitative properties of R. damascena productions are significantly affected by bio-climatic conditions. Rosa damascena Mill., a unique species of Rosaceae, is one of the valuable medicinal and ornamental aromatic plants cultivated in different parts of Iran. Climatic conditions impact the productivity and yield of rose products.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Primary Pharmacological Drivers

The antimicrobial, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-depressant properties of R. damascena have been confirmed. Citronellol and geraniol, as the main components of R. damascena essential oil, are responsible for its pharmacological activities.

Among the key constituents—essential oils (citronellol, geraniol, and phenylethyl alcohol), flavonoids, tannins, and organic acids—their content accounts for the wide range of pharmacological actions associated with Rosa damascena, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective effects.

4.2 Antioxidant and Free-Radical Mechanisms

The phytochemical constituents contribute to potent antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities, with mechanisms that inhibit microbial growth by disrupting cell membranes, scavenge free radicals to prevent oxidation, and modulate inflammatory pathways.

4.3 Analgesic: TRPV1 Receptor Activation

A screening study of 31 essential oils, including rose, showed the ability of the oils to activate TRPV1 receptors, which are associated with inflammation and pain. Rose oil showed moderate activation, suggesting a potential mechanism for analgesic effects.

4.4 Gastrointestinal Spasmolytic Effects

Rosa damascena essential oil has been found to have an inhibitory effect on ileum contractions, and geraniol and citronellol are the major compounds which play a key role in this inhibitory effect.

4.5 Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

The anti-tumor, anti-carcinogenic and cytotoxic effects of R. damascena against cancer cells have been confirmed in preclinical studies. Geraniol, a main compound of R. damascena, acts via different mechanisms: it induces apoptosis in cancer cells and increases expression of apoptotic protein Bak, arrests the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle and reduces cdk2 activity, and inhibits HMG-CoA reductase and ornithine decarboxylase activity, ultimately causing cancer cell death. These findings are preclinical only and have not been validated in human clinical trials.

4.6 Lipid Metabolism (Preclinical)

The main components of rose oil—geraniol and citronellol—have been shown to modulate lipid metabolism and reduce adipose tissue accumulation in in vitro and animal models, suggesting possible antiatherogenic activity.

4.7 Skin Permeability

Studies in Germany on the permeability of human skin in vitro treated with various essential oils, including rose oil, suggest that rose oil increases skin permeability while preserving barrier function.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Anxiety and Psychological Stress

Five studies have evaluated the physiological relaxation effect of rose oil. Anti-depressant, psychological relaxation, improving sexual dysfunction, and anti-anxiety effects were among the clinical properties reported for rose oil. Overall, rose oil demonstrated physiological and psychological relaxation, analgesic, and anti-anxiety effects.

The results of a meta-analysis revealed that administration of R. damascena significantly reduced state anxiety (effect size: 24 studies; standardized mean difference: −1.74, 95% CI: −2.29, −1.20; p < .001).

One randomized controlled trial specifically investigated inhalation aromatherapy with rose essential oil in burn patients: The aim was to determine the effects of aromatherapy with inhalation of rose essential oil on anxiety and sleep quality in burn patients. The RCT was performed on 60 patients (block randomization). Aromatherapy with routine care was provided for three consecutive nights; participants inhaled five drops of 40% rose essential oil. Rose essential oil aromatherapy reduced anxiety and improved sleep quality in burn patients, suggesting this approach as a useful complementary method along with other therapeutic measures.

To obtain conclusive results on the efficacy and safety of rose oil, further clinical trials with larger sample size and better designation are required. The body of evidence is largely composed of small, single-center RCTs, predominantly conducted in clinical populations in Iran, limiting generalizability.

5.2 Mood and Sleep Quality

A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis following PRISMA guidelines included clinical trials involving human participants of any age, gender, and health status using any form or formulation of rose oil, rose extract, or other rose-derived therapeutic products compared with no intervention, standard care, or placebo. Primary outcomes included anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms, as well as sleep symptoms assessed using validated tools. Secondary outcomes were physiological parameters including blood pressure, heart rate, and blood oxygen saturation. Only RCTs were included. This represents one of the most methodologically robust aggregations of evidence to date, though findings should be interpreted in light of the small sample sizes and heterogeneity of included individual trials.

5.3 Pain

After each session of aromatherapy and at the end of treatment, pain scores were significantly reduced in the aromatherapy group receiving R. damascena Mill. compared to the placebo group. Aromatherapy with R. damascena Mill. can be used in postoperative pain in children, together with other common treatments, without any significant side effects. This was based on a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial enrolling 64 children aged 3–6 years, divided randomly into two groups.

For labor pain, the intensity of pregnancy-related lower back pain has been shown to decrease with rose oil compared to carrier oil, as it improves functional ability.

5.4 Dysmenorrhea (Menstrual Pain)

Recent studies have reported inconclusive results regarding the therapeutic effects of Rosa damascena on the outcomes of primary dysmenorrhea and premenstrual syndrome. A systematic review aimed to summarize findings of RCTs regarding effects on menstruation-related pain as the primary outcome, and headache, fatigue, anxiety, and bloating as secondary outcomes. The review evaluated parallel-group and crossover RCTs on aromatherapy, topical treatment, or oral intake of R. damascena products. Seven electronic databases and PubMed were searched from inception to January 2021.

A double-blind crossover clinical trial compared R. damascena extract with mefenamic acid in 92 university students aged 18–24 with primary dysmenorrhea: The study was performed on 92 single 18–24-year-old students with pain intensity score of 5–8 on the Visual Analogue Scale, randomly classified into two groups of 46. The participants received two capsules of Mefenamic Acid and Rosa damascena with similar physical properties in two consecutive cycles, administered every 6 hours for 3 days in a cross-over form. In this study, Rosa damascena and Mefenamic acid had similar effects on pain intensity of primary dysmenorrhea. With further studies, Rosa damascena, which reportedly has no chemical side effects, can be suggested for treating primary dysmenorrhea.

A separate RCT on primary dysmenorrhea used rose oil inhalation as an adjunct: This study aimed at using Visual Analog Scale pain scores and total analgesic consumption to evaluate the effects of adding RDM essential oil inhalation to standard treatment (NSAID) of primary dysmenorrhea. In this prospective RCT, 86 patients were randomized into two groups: group C used only standard analgesics (50 mg diclofenac sodium enteric film tablets), while group R used both standard analgesics and RDM inhalation aromatherapy.

5.5 Preoperative Anxiety

Preoperative anxiety is very common in adults awaiting surgical procedures and can interfere with surgery and increase the risk of postoperative complications. Many researchers and clinical practitioners have attempted to use aromatherapy to help reduce preoperative anxiety. A systematic review and meta-analysis searching PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, PsycINFO and CINAHL included 25 articles comprising 32 trials. Data of Spielberger State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) scores were extracted. The pooled results demonstrated that inhalation and massage aromatherapy significantly decreased anxiety levels in different conditions. The weighted mean difference was −5.16 for State Anxiety Inventory (95%CI: −5.78, −4.55, p<0.001) and −2.85 for Trait Anxiety Inventory (95%CI: −3.95, −1.75, p<0.001). No side effects were mentioned in any of the included studies.

5.6 Antimicrobial Activity

The antibacterial and antifungal activities of geraniol have been confirmed against a large number of microorganisms. A synergistic effect between citronellol, geraniol and nerol has been demonstrated against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These findings are based on in vitro studies and cannot yet be directly extrapolated to clinical infection management.

5.7 Skin and Wound Healing

For Rosa canina-derived rosehip oil (which, while botanically distinct from rose otto, is often grouped in clinical discussions of "rose oil"): There is a scarcity of high-quality studies assessing the therapeutic potential of rosehip oil. From the two human clinical trials using rosehip oil, there is some evidence to suggest its potential as an active ingredient in topical formulations for the treatment of wounds.

To assess wound-healing potential, R. damascena oil extract in a cream base was used as a topical treatment against skin burns. The cream base exhibited moderate wound healing, low epithelialization, and increased inflammatory cell infiltration. Conversely, an herbal cream consisting of a mixture of M. sylvestris, S. nigrum, and R. damascena proved effective against skin burns, significantly increasing wound healing as evidenced by re-epithelialization and formation of epidermal granulation tissues.

5.8 Sexual Dysfunction

Clinical reports include five studies evaluating the physiological relaxation effect of rose oil, and improving sexual dysfunction as one of the other clinical properties reported. The evidence in this area is limited to small trials with significant methodological heterogeneity.

5.9 Antidepressant Effects

Several pharmacological properties including antidepressant effects have been reported for R. damascena through clinical and preclinical research. Most human evidence derives from aromatherapy studies assessing mood states alongside anxiety measures; dedicated large-scale antidepressant trials using rose oil as a primary intervention have not been published.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Based on the aggregated clinical and preclinical literature, rose oil and its principal constituents have been associated with the following body systems and health areas:

Central Nervous System / Mental Health: Anxiolytic and neuroprotective effects have been documented in research on Rosa damascena.
Pain and Musculoskeletal: Rosa damascena has been employed in the treatment of pain syndromes.
Gastrointestinal: The flower of Rosa damascena Mill. is widely used in Iran for gastrointestinal disorders.
Reproductive / Gynecological: It is used for the treatment of menstrual bleeding and abdominal pain.
Dermatological / Wound Healing: Research indicates that rose oil can aid in skin healing, making it a valuable ingredient in skincare formulations designed to nourish and regenerate the skin.
Antimicrobial / Immune: Investigations have confirmed anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, and antibacterial effects.
Metabolic / Cardiovascular (preclinical only): The plant also shows promise in promoting cardiovascular health and addressing metabolic issues in preclinical studies.
Respiratory: Antitussive and relaxant effects on tracheal chains have been reported in preclinical research.
Sleep: Rose essential oil aromatherapy has been shown in clinical trials to improve sleep quality.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Rosa damascena has been employed clinically across multiple modalities including pain syndromes, anxiety, functional gastrointestinal disorders, and dermatological diseases. Dosages vary substantially by form and application route:

Inhalation Aromatherapy: In a burn patient trial, five drops of 40% rose essential oil were used for inhalation aromatherapy, administered over three consecutive nights.
Oral (Extract): One study of Rosa damascena extract (RDE) for primary dysmenorrhea used 1000 mg/day. In a crossover dysmenorrhea trial, two capsules of Rosa damascena were administered every 6 hours for 3 days per menstrual cycle.
Topical (Skin): In one post-surgical scar trial, rosehip seed oil was applied twice daily for 6 weeks, beginning following surgical suture removal.
Preclinical (Animal) — for reference only: In a carrageenan-induced paw edema model, rose geranium essential oil was administered orally in three different doses; 100 mg/kg was able to significantly reduce paw edema with a comparable effect to diclofenac.

No standardized therapeutic dosage for rose oil or R. damascena extract has been established by any major pharmacopoeia or regulatory body. Further research is needed to fully understand mechanisms of action, optimize dosages, and explore potential drug interactions.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Sensitization Potential of Key Constituents

In the hydrodistillation process of the blossoms, citronellol, geraniol, limonene, and linalool are produced, which are certainly known sensitizers. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Panel was concerned about the presence of potential sensitizers (e.g., citronellol and geraniol) in cosmetics. The Panel considered the available data and concluded that Rosa centifolia-derived flower, bud, and stem ingredients are safe in cosmetics in the present practices of use and concentration when formulated to be non-sensitizing. Additionally, the industry should use good manufacturing practices to minimize impurities such as heavy metals and pesticide residues.

Geraniol is among the top ten sensitizers among the 26 fragrance allergens tested in sensitization studies. Geraniol is classified as a weak sensitizer based on Human Repeat Insult Patch Test (HRIPT) data.

Oxidized geraniol is a significantly stronger sensitizer, with 0.92–4.6% positive reactions. A Swedish multicenter study found that pure geraniol at 6% in petrolatum gave 1% positive reactions, while oxidized geraniol at the same concentration gave 3%, and at 11% concentration, 8%.

8.2 Regulatory Thresholds in Cosmetics

In Europe, geraniol is included on the list of "allergenic" substances. The European Cosmetics Regulation requires manufacturers to indicate the presence of certain "allergenic" substances in the ingredient list if present above certain levels: the presence of geraniol must be declared when its concentration exceeds 0.001% in leave-on skin products or 0.01% in rinse-off products.

The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) concluded that geraniol does not present a safety concern at current levels of intake when used as a flavoring agent. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) includes geraniol on its list of flavoring substances considered Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS).

Geraniol has been evaluated for genotoxicity, repeated dose toxicity, reproductive toxicity, local respiratory toxicity, phototoxicity/photoallergenicity, skin sensitization, and environmental safety. Data show that geraniol is not genotoxic. Data on geraniol provide a calculated Margin of Exposure >100 for the repeated dose toxicity and reproductive toxicity endpoints. Geraniol was assigned a No Expected Sensitization Induction Level (NESIL) of 11,000 μg/cm² for the skin sensitization endpoint.

8.3 Citronellol Cross-Reactivity

Cross-reactivity with geraniol and linalool is possible in fragrance-sensitive individuals.

8.4 General Essential Oil Safety Considerations

Although essential oils are considered safe and nontoxic when used at low concentrations, available scientific literature indicates that essential oils and their compounds may possess a strong allergy potential. As concentrated plant extracts, even a small number of drops contains a high level of aromatic compounds; proper dilution is important to reduce the risk of irritation or sensitization. Irritation and redness are common when oils are applied undiluted or at unsafe levels.

As oils age—particularly terpene-rich types—their aromatic compounds oxidize when exposed to air, forming by-products that are more likely to cause skin reactions.

In the general adult population, up to 4.5% may be allergic to fragrance materials, and in consecutive patients patch tested for suspected contact dermatitis, the frequency may reach 20% to 25%.

8.5 Evidence Gaps and Limitations

Research gaps include limited studies on optimized extraction techniques for maximizing bioactive yield, insufficient in vivo data validating efficacy and safety, and a lack of comprehensive proteomic/transcriptomic analyses to elucidate molecular interactions. Further studies on the characterization of chemical constituents and scientific basis of pharmacological activity should be carried out to evaluate its impact on traditional systems of medicine. Large-scale preclinical and clinical trials will be beneficial in investigating the mechanism of the therapeutic potential of R. damascena.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Rose oil may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Rose oil may help support.

No body systems available.