Rooibos

Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Botanical Classification, and Nomenclature

Scientific name: Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren. Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren is a South African endemic plant, popularly consumed globally as a herbal tea. Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), meaning "red bush," is a member of the Fabaceae family of plants, and finds its roots in the Cederberg region of the Western Cape.

Aspalathus linearis (commonly known as rooibos) is endemic to the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa and is a popular herbal drink and skin phytotherapeutic ingredient, with health benefits derived primarily from its unique phenolic content. The Cederberg area, known for its biodiverse fynbos biome, is the only place in the world where the rooibos bush (Aspalathus linearis) naturally grows.

The common name "rooibos" derives from Afrikaans. The name rooibos is derived from Afrikaans and directly translates to "red bush," referring to the mature rooibos plant's rich red-brown leaves at the end of a hot summer in its native range. In 2021, rooibos was granted Protected Designation of Origin status by South Africa, which legally confirms that only tea grown in the designated Cederberg and Sandveld region can be called rooibos.

1.1 Common Forms and Preparations

Traditional rooibos tea is produced by fermentation of the leaves and stems to obtain a red-brown infusion. In contrast, the unfermented rooibos tea (green rooibos) keeps oxidation to a minimum, better preserving antioxidant properties. The fermentation process results in the partial oxidation of the polyphenol content and subsequent colour change from natural green to reddish brown. Therefore, green rooibos contains approximately three times higher levels of total phenolic compounds than fermented rooibos.

In addition to the traditional method of consuming rooibos, a variety of rooibos tea drinks and dietary supplements in the form of capsules and tablets are easily accessible. The plant's needle-like leaves are the primary material used in all preparations. According to European botanist Carl Thunberg, who visited the Cape in 1772, the Khoisan traditionally climbed the mountains and cut the fine, needle-like leaves from wild rooibos plants. The bunches of leaves were then rolled into hessian bags and brought down the steep slopes with donkeys. The leaves were processed by chopping into smaller pieces using axes. Modern commercial production has mechanized these steps but retains the fundamental oxidation ("fermentation") step for red rooibos. Leaves and stems are chopped and beaten before being left in piles to oxidize (sometimes referred to as fermentation), then spread out in the hot South African sun to dry.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

It appears that both the indigenous (San and Khoikhoi) and the colonial inhabitants of rooibos-growing areas contributed to the traditional knowledge of rooibos in some way. Medicinal uses might have been introduced before the 18th century by Khoisan pastoralists or San hunter-gatherers. Also, the use of Aspalathus linearis to make tea, including the production processes such as bruising and oxidising the leaves, is more likely to have been introduced in colonial times by settlers who were accustomed to drinking Asian tea or its substitutes.

Rooibos is a plant native to the Cederberg region that has been used by generations of Khoisan both as a tea and for a range of medicinal purposes. The tea was harvested to drink for enjoyment for its sweet flavour, but more importantly for its medicinal healing and herbal properties. Traditionally, the Khoisan would harvest the needle-like leaves from the wild rooibos plants and store them in large hessian bags.

Traditional topical applications were also documented. Historically, the Khoi and San peoples would pick the needles off the red bush, mix them with animal fat, and rub the ointment onto their skin as an antiaging or anti-inflammatory agent.

European botanist Carl Thunberg arrived in South Africa in the late 1700s to study rooibos and observe the indigenous people harvest it. He piqued widespread interest in rooibos tea following his research into the tasty low-tannin bush brew that the Khoisans religiously consumed. It then progressively became a staple tea-drinking alternative for early Dutch settlers who could not afford expensive black tea imported from Europe.

This plant has been listed as a medicinal plant based mostly on anecdotal evidence. Despite a long history of traditional use in South Africa, very little scientific data are available from controlled clinical trials confirming its popular use.

Regarding benefit-sharing and intellectual property, rooibos honours the Khoisan people, indigenous to South Africa, with the industry contributing 1.5% of the farm gate price as per the 2019 agreement between South Africa's environment minister, the National Khoisan Council, the San Council of South Africa, and the South African Rooibos Council.

3. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

The chemical profile of rooibos is known to be complex and mainly composed of phenolic acids and flavonoids. There are a few of these chemicals in rooibos that are unique to Aspalathus linearis, such as aspalathin and phenylpropenoic acid glucoside (PPAG).

3.1 Dihydrochalcones: Aspalathin and Nothofagin

Aspalathin is a C-glucosyl dihydrochalcone that is abundantly present in Aspalathus linearis. This endemic South African plant, belonging to the Cape Floristic region, is normally used for production of rooibos, a herbal tea. Aspalathin was valued initially only as a precursor in the formation of the characteristic red-brown colour of "fermented" rooibos, but the hype about the potential role of natural antioxidants to alleviate oxidative stress shifted interest in aspalathin to its antioxidant properties and subsequently to its potential role to improve metabolic syndrome, a disease condition interrelated with oxidative stress.

Aspalathin is reported to possess potent anti-oxidant properties that are believed to be responsible for the health benefits of rooibos. Other pharmacological properties ascribed to the molecule include antidiabetic, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activities.

Currently used industry chemical markers for rooibos product quality control include aspalathin and nothofagin, the former of which is unique to rooibos. Phenylpropenoic acid glucoside (PPAG) is also unique to rooibos, however, it is currently not used as a chemical marker in the monitoring of commercial rooibos products.

Quantitative analyses have placed aspalathin as the dominant flavonoid. One study reported that the total concentration of flavonoids in 500 ml of beverage was 848 ± 29 µmol, with the major flavonoids being aspalathin (636 ± 20 µmol), followed by nothofagin (79 ± 3.1 µmol). Aspalathin and nothofagin are known strong antioxidants that occur most prominently in unfermented (green) rooibos.

3.2 Flavones and Flavonols

Aspalathin and nothofagin, C-linked glycosides of the flavones apigenin and luteolin, and four eriodictyol-C-glycoside isomers constitute the major flavonoids in rooibos tea. The flavone analogues of nothofagin found in rooibos include vitexin and isovitexin, which are 8-C- and 6-C-β-D-glucopyranoside derivatives of apigenin, respectively.

The most abundant group of flavonoids found in fermented A. linearis was flavones. In analyzed rooibos extracts, positional isomers of apigenin and luteolin C-glycosides were identified: vitexin/isovitexin and orientin/isoorientin, as well as di-C-glycosides such as carlinoside.

Aspalathin, hyperoside, and orientin are major flavonoids, with quercetin, luteolin, and chrysoeriol detected in trace quantities.

3.3 Effect of Fermentation on Constituent Levels

Fermentation results in a reduction in the levels of dihydrochalcone compounds as they are oxidised to polymeric brown products and the flavone-C-glycosides, orientin and vitexin. Breiter et al. reported that free flavonoids found in the green rooibos beverage were higher (159 ± 6.5 µmol) than those in the red rooibos beverage (84 ± 2.9 µmol).

3.4 Other Phenolic Compounds

Rooibos contains numerous minerals, especially flavonoids such as dihydrochalcones (aspalathin and nothofagin), phenylpropanoids, flavones, and flavonols, which may have a variety of positive health effects. Rooibos is also notable for what it lacks: rooibos tea does not contain caffeine and has low tannin levels compared to black or green tea.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Infusions made from rooibos tea contain flavonoids and phenolic acids which have anti-oxidative activity because they play an active role in preventing the formation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Flavonoids (C6–C3–C6) usually present a high antioxidant activity due to their high redox potential, which allows them to act as reducing agents and hydrogen donors.

The proposed mechanism of action of aspalathin is linked to its capacity to enhance the expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) expression, an intracellular antioxidant response element.

4.2 Anti-Glycation Activity

The extract from unfermented rooibos showed a higher ability to capture methylglyoxal (MGO)/glyoxal (GO) and inhibit advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation than did the extract from fermented rooibos, and this effect was attributed to a higher content of dihydrochalcones. The compounds detected in the extracts, such as aspalathin, nothofagin, vitexin, isovitexin, and eriodictyol, as well as structurally related phloretin and phloroglucinol, trapped MGO.

4.3 Antispasmodic Mechanisms

Aqueous rooibos extract at 0.3–10 mg/ml produced relaxation of spontaneous and low K⁺ (25 mM)-induced contractions of rabbit jejunum. In the presence of glibenclamide, relaxation of low K⁺-induced contractions was prevented. Cromakalim inhibited contractions induced by low K⁺ but not high K⁺, while verapamil did not differentiate in its inhibitory effect. Its constituents chrysoeriol, orientin, and vitexin showed a similar pattern of spasmolytic effects to the extract, while rutin was more like verapamil. These data indicate that rooibos's antispasmodic effect is mediated predominantly through K⁺-channel activation.

4.4 Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Rooibos extract significantly decreased ROS production and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, and IL-17a) in human leukocytes. Additionally, rooibos extract down-regulated LPS-induced macrophage M1 polarization, shown by a significant decrease in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines: TNFα, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β, and CXCL10.

4.5 Modulation of Adrenal Steroidogenesis

Major rooibos flavonoids—dihydrochalcones, aspalathin and nothofagin, flavones—orientin and vitexin, and a flavonol, rutin, were investigated to determine their influence on the activity of adrenal steroidogenic enzymes. All the flavonoids inhibited 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD2) and CYP17A1 significantly, while the inhibition of downstream enzymes, CYP21A2 and CYP11B1, was both substrate and flavonoid specific. In vitro studies in COS-1 cells have shown that unfermented rooibos extract as well as the two rare dihydrochalcones, aspalathin and nothofagin, significantly inhibited P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase (CYP17A1) and P450 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2), while also significantly reducing the levels of cortisol in forskolin-stimulated adrenal H295R cells.

4.6 Cardioprotection Against Hyperglycemia

Rooibos compounds, aspalathin and phenylpyruvic acid-2-O-β-D-glucoside (PPAG), can independently protect cardiomyocytes from hyperglycemia-related reactive oxygen species (ROS). While aspalathin shows more potency by enhancing intracellular antioxidant defenses, PPAG acts more as an anti-apoptotic agent. High glucose exposure altered expression of genes involved in energy metabolism including acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARα). The combination treatment improved myocardial substrate metabolism, maintained mitochondrial membrane potential, and attenuated various markers for oxidative stress including NADPH oxidase activity and glutathione content.

4.7 Adenosine Receptor Interactions

Despite rooibos's history as an herbal tea and traditional medicine, the chemical constituents of these tisanes have been studied for their effects on adenosine receptors. A series of 30 commercially available chemical constituents of rooibos were investigated via radioligand binding studies to determine their adenosine A1 and A2A receptor affinity at both rat and human subtypes. The most promising chemical constituent was kaempferol, which showed sub-micromolar affinity towards the rat A1 subtype.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Overall context: Previous studies reported that fermented and unfermented rooibos tea have considerable anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. Most of this knowledge, however, originates from animal and cell culture studies. Up to now, most knowledge about the potential health benefits of rooibos tea has come from animal studies or cell cultures.

5.1 Antioxidant Status in Humans

In both healthy and at-risk individuals, rooibos has been shown to enhance lipid profiles, boost antioxidant status, and lower blood glucose levels. The existing findings suggest that rooibos consumption demonstrated the ability to improve lipid profiles, boost antioxidant status, and lower blood glucose levels in both apparently healthy, and individuals at-risk or diagnosed with chronic conditions. Thus, it can be presumed that rooibos tea provides some health benefits, yet these findings are based on a limited number of human intervention studies and a small total sample size.

A 2010 crossover study published in Food Chemistry specifically examined plasma antioxidant capacity. Both fermented and unfermented rooibos increased plasma total antioxidant capacity. Studies performed with in vitro systems and animal models have shown that rooibos extracts possess antioxidant potential, antimutagenic and hepatoprotective properties, and immuno-modulating effects.

Bioavailability findings are inconsistent. In four studies, the bioavailability of rooibos tea metabolites was examined after consumption, but the results were inconsistent. In some cases, no measurable concentrations were detected in urine or plasma, likely due to underdosing.

5.2 Cardiovascular Health

One study investigated the effect of rooibos on biochemical and oxidative stress parameters in adults at risk for cardiovascular disease. After a washout period of two weeks, 40 volunteers consumed six cups of fermented/traditional rooibos daily for six weeks, followed by a control period. The trial conducted by Marnewick JL et al. (2011) was well conducted, showing that drinking six cups of fermented, traditional rooibos daily significantly improved the lipid profile and redox status, which is relevant to adults at risk for developing cardiovascular disease.

Increasingly, rooibos has been studied in human populations, mainly for its antioxidant and cardioprotective properties. The largest body of evidence is currently derived from laboratory and mechanistic studies, although human research is emerging. Research focusing on cardiovascular health looks particularly promising.

Limitation: The cardiovascular evidence to date rests on a small number of trials with modest sample sizes, and larger randomized controlled trials have not yet been conducted.

5.3 Diabetes and Glycemic Control

At the preclinical level, aspalathin found in rooibos stimulated glucose uptake in muscle tissues and insulin secretion from pancreatic beta-cells in a type 2 diabetes mouse model. The role of aspalathin in limiting the progression of metabolic disorders and preventing diabetes-induced cardiovascular complications has been reported.

In vitro beta-cell protection studies have also been conducted. Green rooibos extract (GRT) and the flavonoids aspalathin and 3-hydroxyphloretin offered significant protection against oxidative stress and lipotoxicity in insulin-producing β-cells. GRT downregulated expression of pro-apoptotic genes Txnip and Ddit3.

In the clinical domain, results suggest beneficial effects on the modulation of glycemic, inflammatory, and cardiovascular parameters, but also reveal the scarcity of robust clinical trials in humans.

Evidence strength: The antidiabetic evidence remains primarily preclinical (animal models and cell culture). Human clinical data are very limited and insufficient to draw firm conclusions.

5.4 Bone Health

One clinical study investigated rooibos in a population with osteopenia. Findings suggest that the clinical actions of rooibos on decreasing CTX levels (a bone resorption marker) in a population with osteopenia may be through a cooperative effort between melatonin and rooibos by protecting human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) viability against oxidative stress-induced loss and by promoting osteoblast differentiation, respectively. Although both rooibos and melatonin protected against oxidative stress-induced loss of osteoblasts in vitro, their underlying mechanisms were different. Melatonin demonstrated the greatest protection at days 10–11 through melatonin receptors and effects on hMSC viability, while rooibos demonstrated protection at days 10–11 and 20–21 through signaling mechanisms involved in differentiation processes, not on cell viability.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; limited to one clinical study and supporting in vitro work.

5.5 Melatonin and Sleep-Related Outcomes

Rooibos supplementation for three months statistically increased melatonin levels (ng/ml) by 22.97 ± 25.26 (54.21%) from the baseline (42.37 ± 19.40) (P = 0.06), but did not significantly affect blood pressure levels (systolic and diastolic) or physical domain scores compared to placebo. However, rooibos had a significant reduction in the emotional/psychological domain scores (impact because of emotional problems) by 2.25 ± 1.63 (5.98%) when compared to placebo.

Evidence strength: A single small study with borderline significance (P = 0.06); findings should be considered exploratory.

5.6 Gastrointestinal Effects

Rooibos tea has been widely used for abdominal spasm and diarrhoea. Rooibos aqueous extract also exhibited antidiarrhoeal and antisecretory activities in mice. These gastrointestinal findings are limited to preclinical (animal) models; controlled human trials specifically investigating rooibos for gastrointestinal indications are lacking.

5.7 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Rooibos extract significantly decreased ROS production and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, and IL-17a) in human leukocytes; it also down-regulated LPS-induced macrophage M1 polarization with significant decreases in TNFα, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β, and CXCL10.

Evidence strength: The anti-inflammatory data in this context remain in vitro. Clinical trials specifically measuring inflammatory biomarkers after rooibos intervention in humans are limited.

5.8 Skin and Topical Applications

Although rooibos is used to treat acne, eczema, and to prevent wrinkles, clinical evidence for topical use is lacking. The plant has historically been used in topical formulations by Khoisan people, and its antioxidant compounds are incorporated in cosmeceutical products; however, rigorous clinical dermatological trials have not yet been reported in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.9 Liver Function

In animal models, rooibos has demonstrated hepatoprotective effects. Multiple rat studies demonstrate hepatoprotective effects of rooibos tea against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver damage, including restoration of antioxidant status, reduction in lipid peroxidation, and histological improvement of steatosis and cirrhosis, with improved mitochondrial function, reduced oxidative stress markers, and normalized liver enzyme levels.

Evidence strength: Animal data only for hepatoprotection; no controlled human clinical evidence of hepatoprotective benefit. See Section 7 (Safety) for hepatotoxicity concerns.

5.10 Scoping Review Summary

The most recent comprehensive scoping review of human studies provides important context. This review comprised 18 publications, with half (50%) of the studies conducted in South Africa. There were 488 participants in all, ranging in age from six to 83 years, in the investigations. Based on the different types of rooibos used and the contradictory results reported in these few human studies, a dose-response study investigating the dosages that offer the greatest benefits to humans is warranted. Researchers should also investigate the effect of rooibos consumption in large-scale clinical studies with larger sample sizes.

A 2024 systematic review following PRISMA 2020 guidelines also underscores these limitations. Rooibos tea is naturally caffeine-free and contains unique polyphenols with strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hyperglycaemic properties. A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines (PROSPERO ID: CRD42023467829) to evaluate the potential association between rooibos tea consumption and health outcomes. Relevant articles were searched from journal inception until October 2024 using five electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar) and the Cochrane Clinical Register of Controlled Trials. Included studies involved consumption of any rooibos tea beverage or supplement in humans 18 years or older and reported any health outcomes measured pre- and post-intervention.

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

In general, almost all the studies used three types of rooibos: black, red (fermented), and green (unfermented), except for two studies which used rooibos extract and a standardized rooibos capsule.

The dosages used throughout human studies ranged from 200 to 1,200 ml of water. Study durations ranged from 1 day (for acute effects) to 3 months.

• Cardiovascular/lipid studies: 40 volunteers consumed six cups of fermented/traditional rooibos daily for six weeks.
• Rat studies (toxicology reference): An aspalathin-enriched green rooibos extract was fed to male Fischer rats. The average dietary total polyphenol intake was 75.6 and 62.7 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/kg body weight/day over 28 and 90 days, respectively, equalling human equivalent doses (HEDs) of 12.3 and 10.2 GAE mg/kg bw/day. Aspalathin intake of 29.5 mg/kg bw/day represents a HED of 4.8 mg/kg bw/day in the 90-day study.
• Bone/melatonin study: Rooibos supplementation for three months statistically increased melatonin levels by 22.97 ± 25.26 (54.21%) from baseline.

A variety of rooibos dosages and types of tea in the experiments had inconsistent results that were probably impacted by the amount consumed. Future studies should include a dose-response study in humans, as well as large-scale clinical trials.

7. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

7.1 General Safety Profile

Rooibos tea is caffeine-free (a benefit for pregnant women, children, and caffeine-sensitive people) and contains very low levels of tannins. At normal consumption levels, the safety profile is considered broadly acceptable in the available literature; however, several specific concerns have been documented.

7.2 Hepatotoxicity Cases

A documented case of acute hepatitis and liver failure occurred in a 52-year-old male consuming rooibos tea, with liver biopsy confirming toxin-mediated injury and recovery only after discontinuation. Three case reports of possible hepatotoxic effects of rooibos tea have been published. Two case studies have associated chronic rooibos consumption with conventional prescription medications, including atorvastatin, with hepatotoxicity.

The contamination of plant material may contribute to herb-induced liver injury. Due to the impact on CYPs, there is a possible risk of herb-drug interactions affecting bioavailability of some co-administered medicines.

7.3 CYP450 Enzyme Interactions and Drug Metabolism

Cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C8, CYP2C9, and CYP3A4 are important in the metabolism of hypoglycemic drugs such as thiazolidinediones and sulfonylureas, and hypocholesterolemic drugs such as atorvastatin. Both unfermented (GRT) and fermented (FRE) rooibos extracts inhibited the activity of CYP2C8 (IC₅₀: 7.69 ± 8.85 µg/mL and 8.93 ± 8.88 µg/mL, respectively) and CYP3A4 (IC₅₀: 31.33 ± 4.69 µg/mL and 51.44 ± 4.31 µg/mL, respectively). Both extracts dose- and time-dependently inhibited CYP2C8 activity, but only time-dependently inhibited CYP2C9.

One study found that rooibos increased cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP3A4) activity in the intestine of rats, which resulted in the reduced efficacy of the benzodiazepine midazolam. The safety and efficacy of rooibos nutraceuticals as supplements and adjunctive therapies to chronic medications, specifically those used to treat metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes and hyperlipidemia, have often not been established. The adjunctive use of natural products with chronic medications for these metabolic disorders could potentially induce adverse herb-drug interactions.

7.4 Iron Status

A 90-day rat study found that consumption of an aspalathin-enriched green rooibos extract significantly reduced serum iron levels while significantly increasing alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity. This suggests a possible effect on iron bioavailability that warrants attention, particularly in populations at risk of iron deficiency.

7.5 Estrogenic Activity

Some compounds isolated from rooibos leaves showed estrogenic activity. Therefore, patients with hormone-sensitive cancers should use caution before taking rooibos. One animal study concluded that Aspalathus linearis might exhibit some estrogenic property and may thus be beneficial to boost female fertility. Unfermented rooibos raised uterus weight and endometrial thickness in adult rats. These findings are based on animal and in vitro experiments; no controlled human data are available.

7.6 Interaction with Atorvastatin

In vitro experiments showed that significantly increased ROS production was observed in liver cells exposed to atorvastatin (ATV) and palmitate. Combination therapy of green rooibos extract (GRT) plus ATV also showed significant increases in ROS production. This in vitro signal supports the clinical case reports of hepatotoxicity when rooibos is co-administered with statins, and is an area of active concern.

7.7 Anticancer Considerations

Although lab studies suggest rooibos tea is rich in antioxidants, studies in humans are very limited. Lab studies suggest rooibos tea contains compounds that may prevent tumor growth and slow aging, but studies on this have not been conducted in humans. Some lab studies suggest rooibos may inhibit tumor growth, but others indicate that rooibos leaves have estrogenic activity. Human studies are needed.

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