Palmyra

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Profile

Scientific and Common Names

The scientific name of the Palmyra palm is Borassus flabellifer L. The binomial is derived from Greek: "Borassus" refers to the leathery fruit, and "flabellifer" means fan-shaped leaves. It is a slow-growing, monocotyledonous, and dioecious plant with a chromosome number of 2n = 36, belonging to the family Arecaceae.

Commonly known as the Palmyra palm, double palm, or toddy palm, Borassus flabellifer grows extremely slowly, reaching up to 20 m in height, with a trunk diameter of 1–3 m, and requires 15 to 20 years to mature and produce inflorescences. Specimens can grow to a height of 30 m and are reported to live up to 150 years. Other common names in various languages include: Hindi: Taltar, Thada, Tala; Arabic: Thara; Bengali: Thala; Kannada: Talimara; Malayalam: Pana; Tamil: Panaimaram; Telugu: Tharichettu.

It is also known as the toddy palm, Asian palm, wine palm, and lontar palm — a tree with numerous applications, including food, drinks (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), fibre, medicine, and timber.

Geographic Distribution and Natural Source

Borassus flabellifer L., of the Arecaceae family, is widely distributed and cultivated across Africa and South Asian countries. Traditionally, different parts of the plant — root, leaves, fruit, and seeds — are utilized in the management of a variety of human ailments. The Palmyra palm is a versatile tropical species that has been extensively utilized across Asia and Africa for its economic, nutritional, and medicinal value.

Parts Used and Common Forms/Preparations

Every part of B. flabellifer can be processed, consumed, and repurposed, resulting in a closed-loop system that reduces environmental impact and encourages resource efficiency. The parts used medicinally and nutritionally include:

• The soft orange-yellow pulp (mesocarp) of the ripe fruit is sugary, dense, and edible, rich in vitamins A and C, and can be processed into soft beverages, jam, spread, toffee, delicious food items, and sweets.
• Neera is the unfermented, sweet sap extracted from the unopened inflorescence of the Palmyra palm, prized as a traditional non-alcoholic beverage for its refreshing taste and nutritional profile.
• Palm jaggery is processed from unfermented palmyrah tree sap called neera. Palm jaggery contains 65–68% sucrose and 5–15% reducing sugars, and is directly used in Ayurvedic preparations.
• The seed, inflorescence, and apical bud are edible. Sprouted seedlings of Palmyra palm can also be eaten raw, cooked, or sun-dried for later consumption.
• Roots, leaves, fruit, and seeds have been used for various human ailments, and the leaves are used to make mats, baskets, fans, toys, and candy boxes.
• Products prepared from palmyra include Neera (fresh sap), Nungu (tender endosperm jelly), Jaggery, Toddy (fermented sap), Palmyra Vinegar, Wine, Cola, Spread, Yoghurt, Sugar, Toffee, and Jelly.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Sacred and Cultural Significance

Because so many religious texts are preserved on palmyra leaves, the palm is sacred to Hindus and Buddhists. There are many descriptions of the Palmyra Palm and its uses written in various European languages, and nearly all of them mention a Tamil poem entitled "Tala Vilasam," said to enumerate no fewer than 801 different purposes to which the Palmyra may be applied.

In Tamil Nadu's culture, it is referred to as "Kalpataru" or "karpaha Veruksham" ("celestial tree"), as all its parts have a use. The leaves of Borassus flabellifer have been used extensively in Kerala for writing horoscopes, religious documents, and Ayurvedic manuscripts.

Ayurvedic Tradition

Historical records of Borassus flabellifer date back over two millennia. Sanskrit texts like the Ashtanga Hridaya (circa 7th century CE) mention Talah for its cooling and restorative properties, where it is referred to as "Tāla."

Traditional Ayurvedic qualities and benefits of Tala include: Madhura (sweet), Sheeta (coolant), Medakrut (increases fat), Kaphaprada (increases Kapha Dosha), Balaprada (improves strength and immunity), Shukrala (improves sperm and semen quantity and quality), Brimhana (improves weight), and Vatapittahara (balances Vata and Pitta Dosha).

Borassus palm has a long-standing history of medicinal use across tropical Asia and Africa. Traditional healers have prized various parts — leaves, sap, fruit, and roots — for their therapeutic properties. Ancient Ayurvedic texts describe the fruit as a natural coolant, often recommended to treat heat-related illnesses, digestive disturbances, and constipation.

The Brahma Vaitra Purana mentions its use in a mixture with other herbs to eliminate Pitta (acidity).

Tamil and South Asian Traditions

In Tamil Sangam literature (circa 300 BCE–300 CE), palm heart and sap were described as tonic and aphrodisiac, especially during summer months when fresh water was scarce. Medieval herbalists in Kerala documented using Talah sap to treat fevers and urinary disorders, noting its sweet-cooling rasa (taste) and katutva (sharpness).

Ethnomedicinal Uses Across Cultures

Ethnomedicinal data report its use as an abortifacient, and for burns, convulsions, earache, headache, heat stroke, epilepsy, gonorrhoea, hysteria, menstrual disorders, rheumatism, scabies, sores, syphilis, and ulcers.

Traditional preparations differed by plant part:

• The young roots were used as an anthelmintic and diuretic.
• Heartburn and enlarged spleen and liver were treated using the ash of the flower.
• Sap from the flower stalk was used as a tonic, diuretic, stimulant, laxative, amoebicide, and anti-phlegmatic agent.
• The young roots of the tree were taken as a diuretic and anti-parasitic drug, and decoctions prepared from these roots were used to treat respiratory and gastritis disorders.
• The sap of the Asian Palmyra Palm, known as "Toddy," collected from the unopened flower stalk, was consumed as a beverage. In Ayurveda, Toddy is believed to have rejuvenating and aphrodisiac properties and is considered beneficial for digestion.
• The oil extracted from the fruit pulp or kernels, known as "Palmyra Palm Oil," is used in Ayurveda for massage and as a base oil for herbal formulations, considered to have nourishing and moisturizing properties for the skin.
• The scaly secretions on the surfaces of palmyra tree leaves were traditionally used by tree climbers to treat cuts or wounds inflicted during palm juice tapping.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Unique Steroidal Saponins: Flabelliferins and Borassosides

There are 14 types of flabelliferins (only nine of their structures are known) and six types of borassosides have been extracted so far. Borassus also contains an astringent compound referred to as flabelliferins. These compounds are steroidal saponins.

Flabelliferin F-II reduces intestinal glucose uptake and is anti-diabetic and anti-obesitic. Flabelliferin FB is antimicrobial, an inhibitor for SARS-CoV main proteinase, SARS-CoV main protease, and human cellular transmembrane serine proteinase, and Borassoside E is antifungal.

The male inflorescence constitutes borassosides and dioscin — spirostane-type steroid saponins. The principal steroid saponin, dioscin, inhibited the increase of serum glucose levels in sucrose-loaded rats at a dose of 50 mg/kg, p.o.

Polyphenols, Flavonoids, and Other Phytochemicals

The phytochemicals extracted from Borassus flabellifer include polyphenols, organo-sulfur compounds, carotenoids, alkaloids, polysaccharides, steroidal glycosides, albuminoids, triterpenes, and saponins.

Various parts of the plant contain bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenols, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, and unique steroidal saponins including flabelliferins and borassosides.

LC–MS/MS analysis of the male flower ethanolic extract revealed the presence of gallic acid, coumarin, and quercetin, with concentrations of quercetin at 0.912 µg/mL, coumarin at 0.021 µg/mL, and gallic acid at 1.610 µg/mL.

Phytochemical analysis of the roots reveals that they comprise carbohydrates, terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, and proteins.

Nutritional Constituents

The nutritional analysis of the fruit revealed the presence of calcium, ascorbic acid, maltose, starch, fats, reducing and non-reducing sugars, and carbohydrate. The fresh pulp is reportedly rich in vitamins A and C. The fresh sap is reportedly a good source of vitamin B-complex.

Palmyra palm syrup has been found to contain 10 vitamins, the most abundant being vitamin E; overall, 38 volatile compounds were identified and classified into six groups: alcohols, acids, ketones, sulfurs, pyrazines, and phenols/aldehydes.

The jaggery produced from the inflorescence sap exhibits a low glycemic index (compared to cane sugar) and is rich in polyphenols and other phytochemicals (phenolics, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and steroids), as well as minerals including potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg).

One hundred grams of palmyrah jaggery contains 0.35% protein, 0.17% fat, 90.6% carbohydrates, 24 mg of vitamin B-1, 11.0 mg of vitamin C, and 0.74% minerals.

The fresh sap (neera) has a low glycemic index of 35–45, containing 15.2–19.7 g of total solids per 100 mL, with total sugars approximately 14–15 g/100 mL, primarily sucrose (about 13 g/100 mL).

Root Constituents by GC-MS

GC-MS analysis reveals that ethanolic extracts from the roots of Borassus flabellifer are reported to contain thirty-six bioactive compounds, each with unique significance.

4. Mechanisms of Action

The pharmacological mechanisms attributed to various Borassus flabellifer extracts involve free radical scavenging, suppression of inflammatory responses, induction of apoptosis in cancer cells, inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, and modulation of renal electrolyte excretion.

The methanolic extract of B. flabellifer male flowers contains steroid saponins of the spirostane type, which have been shown to reduce the rise in serum glucose levels in rats fed sucrose. The specific mechanism for the antidiabetic action of Flabelliferin F-II is reduction of intestinal glucose absorption. Yoshikawa (2007) demonstrated that the methanol extract of male flowers of B. flabellifer contains the main steroid saponins, borassoside and dioscin, which can inhibit the increase in serum glucose levels in rats given sucrose at a dose of 250 mg/kg, p.o.

Ethanolic extracts of B. flabellifer exhibit high antioxidant activity towards DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, superoxide (SO), and nitric oxide (NO), and possess the strongest inhibitory effect towards α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Inhibition of these two carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes is a recognized mechanism for slowing post-prandial glucose absorption.

Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and other bioactive chemicals provide B. flabellifer with antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Antidiabetic and Blood Glucose Regulation

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and animal); no human clinical trials identified.

The ethanolic extract of Borassus flabellifer flowers has been screened for anti-diabetic potential against alloxan-induced diabetic rats, with assessment of oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), blood glucose level, serum lipid profile, and histological study of the pancreas. After administration of the ethanolic extract, there was a significant reduction in fasting blood glucose levels from 60 minutes in the acute OGTT study.

In in vitro testing, the ethanolic extract of B. flabellifer sprout showed excellent anti-diabetic activity when examined using glucose adsorption and glucose diffusion methods.

Results from seed powder extracts revealed potent alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity, indicating the use of Borassus flabellifer seed powder as a potential therapeutic agent for diabetes management.

The low glycaemic index of Palmyra's sugar makes it a potentially suitable alternative sweetener for diabetic patients.

All antidiabetic evidence to date is from in vitro assays and animal models. No registered human clinical trials evaluating Borassus flabellifer specifically for glycemic control have been identified in the available literature.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; preliminary.

The root/rhizome of the plant was used to prepare extracts via maceration using different solvents, and these extracts were studied for free radical scavenging activity on DPPH, hydroxyl, and superoxide free radicals. The antioxidant capacity was also studied using the ferric thiocyanate (FTC) method. The selected plant extracts showed concentration-dependent percentage inhibition of the tested free radicals.

Numerous phytochemicals, including alkaloids, steroids, tannins, flavonoids, phenols, glycosides, coumarins, and saponins, are found in various B. flabellifer extracts. These classes of compounds collectively underpin the in vitro antioxidant activity observed across multiple laboratory assay systems.

In a study using kidney cell models, the Borassus flabellifer methanolic extract exhibited greater antioxidant activity than the ethyl acetate extract; cytoprotective effect was demonstrated in both extracts, particularly in the ethyl acetate extract. The extracts showed protection against the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin by prevention of increased oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and a declined GSH/GSSG ratio.

5.3 Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, and Antipyretic Activity

Evidence level: Animal models; preliminary.

The anti-inflammatory activity of the ethanolic extract of male flowers (inflorescences) was evaluated using acute inflammatory models such as nystatin-induced rat paw edema, carrageenan-induced paw edema, and chronic models such as cotton-pellet-induced granuloma and carrageenan-induced air-pouch model in rats. Freund's Complete Adjuvant (FCA)-induced polyarthritis was used to screen anti-arthritic potential. The extract at doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight showed significant anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity compared to control.

A study on the pharmacological activity of the male flower found that ethanol extracts at concentrations of 150 and 300 mg/kg had anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects in rats.

The male inflorescence shows significant anti-inflammatory activity and analgesic property. Additionally, flowers of B. flabellifer have been investigated for their antipyretic effects and immunosuppressant properties.

5.4 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; preliminary.

Studies have investigated the antimicrobial activity of the seed coat of Borassus flabellifer against human pathogens using agar well diffusion technique. The zone of inhibition of methanolic extracts varied from 16 to 23 mm, ethanol extracts from 14 to 23 mm, and aqueous extracts from 10 to 15 mm at 50 mg/mL concentrations. Among all tested organisms, Aspergillus brasiliensis and Bacillus subtilis showed a higher rate of inhibition with ethanolic and methanolic extracts.

The antimicrobial activity of Borassus flabellifer root was evaluated using standard agar well diffusion methods against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli). The minimal bactericidal concentration was found to be at 30 mg/300 µL from root of Borassus flabellifer when compared with the standard drug.

All antimicrobial findings are from in vitro agar diffusion assays. There are no controlled clinical studies of Borassus flabellifer against human infection.

5.5 Wound Healing

Evidence level: Preliminary laboratory and observational; no controlled clinical trials.

The scaly secretions on palmyra tree leaves have been traditionally used by climbers to treat cuts or wounds. A study was performed to scientifically validate this traditional application. Light microscopy, UV and FTIR spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the scaly secretions, and phytochemical investigation and biological properties including antimicrobial and wound healing studies were conducted. Phytochemical investigation confirmed the presence of tannins, carbohydrates, protein, terpenoids, and reducing sugars.

5.6 Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and animal models only; preliminary.

Studies have revealed that palmyra possesses hepatoprotective properties, potentially useful in preventing and managing liver disorders. GC-MS analysis of palmyrah haustorium extract revealed volatile compounds with medicinal properties including hepatoprotective activity, among others.

One research effort investigated the impact of a hydroalcoholic extract of Borassus flabellifer on altered hematological and biochemical parameters induced by azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in a murine model; 30 mice were used, with 24 receiving AOM injections and 6 serving as untreated controls; treatment with the extract commenced on the 3rd day and spanned 70 days.

5.7 Cytotoxic and Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: In vitro cell line studies only; very preliminary.

The seed coat extract of B. flabellifer has shown cytotoxic effects towards human dermal fibroblasts and Vero cell lines (categorized as mildly toxic) and anticancer effects towards cancer cell lines such as HeLa and HSC-3 cell lines by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation.

Anticancer activity was studied using the MTT assay against HeLa and Vero cells, and antidiabetic activity was evaluated using alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibition assays; results revealed satisfactory anticancer activity against HeLa cells.

These findings are restricted to cell culture systems and cannot be extrapolated to clinical efficacy or safety in humans without further research.

5.8 Larvicidal Activity

A study by Keerthi et al. demonstrated larvicidal effects of a flabelliferin saponin from palmyrah flour on dengue mosquito Aedes sp., published in the Journal of National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka (2007).

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Reviews of pharmacological literature on Borassus flabellifer associate the plant with the following activities: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anthelmintic, diuretic, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-nociceptive, antibacterial, wound healing, anti-convulsant, and antimicrobial properties.

• Metabolic/Endocrine System: Palmyra fruit and sap are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. The low glycaemic index of its sugar makes it a potentially suitable alternative for diabetic patients.
• Digestive System: Ancient Ayurvedic texts describe the fruit as a natural coolant recommended to treat digestive disturbances and constipation.
• Urinary/Renal System: The young roots have been used as a diuretic and anti-parasitic agent, and decoctions prepared from these roots were used to treat respiratory and gastritis disorders.
• Musculoskeletal System: Freund's Complete Adjuvant-induced polyarthritis was used to screen anti-arthritic potential of the flower extract, which at doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight showed significant anti-arthritic activity.
• Skin and Wound Healing: The tender fruit pulp has been used as a soothing remedy for skin irritations and to alleviate burning sensations in the body.
• Immune/Anti-infective: B. flabellifer exhibited higher rates of growth inhibition against certain human pathogens in in vitro testing.
• Cardiovascular Health (indirect): Palmyra's low glycaemic index and potential prebiotic effects contribute to glycaemic control and gut health, and consumption of Palmyra-derived products has been associated with cholesterol reduction and cardiovascular health improvement. These associations remain preliminary and are not established from human clinical trials.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No standardized pharmaceutical dosage has been established for Borassus flabellifer in any major pharmacopeia or regulatory monograph. The following doses have been reported only in specific preclinical research contexts:

• Anti-inflammatory / analgesic / antipyretic (animal studies): Ethanol extracts at concentrations of 150 and 300 mg/kg were used in rat studies evaluating anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects.
• Anti-inflammatory / anti-arthritic (animal study, rat): The extract at doses of 200 mg/kg body weight and 400 mg/kg body weight showed significant anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity in experimental rats.
• Antidiabetogenic (animal study, oral): The methanol extract of male flowers was used at a dose of 250 mg/kg, p.o. in sucrose-loaded rats to evaluate the inhibitory effect on serum glucose levels.
• Dioscin (isolated saponin, animal study): The principal steroid saponin dioscin inhibited the increase of serum glucose levels in sucrose-loaded rats at a dose of 50 mg/kg, p.o.
• Antimicrobial (in vitro): Methanolic extracts of seed coat were tested at 50 mg/mL concentrations, yielding zones of inhibition of 16–23 mm.
• Root extract (antibacterial, in vitro): The minimal bactericidal concentration of root extract was found to be at 30 mg/300 µL.

All dosages above are derived from animal or in vitro experiments. No human clinical trials establishing a safe or effective oral dose for any indication have been identified.

8. Safety Considerations

Toxicity of Palmyra Flour (Young Shoot Flour)

A significant body of preclinical literature has documented serious safety concerns specifically associated with flour prepared from the young shoots (seedlings) of Borassus flabellifer. These concerns are distinct from the safety profile of ripe fruit pulp, sap, or other plant parts.

Flour from the young shoots of the palmyrah palm was tested in Salmonella typhimurium (strains TA98 and TA100, Ames test) and Escherichia coli (strains WP2, WP2uvrA, CM881, and CM891). The flour was tested in both boiled and raw forms. Both forms showed dose-related mutagenic responses in base pair substitution-sensitive strains. The flour from boiled palmyrah shoots exerted a somewhat stronger mutagenic effect on TA100 than flour from the raw shoots. This investigation adds mutagenicity to the wide range of biological effects of palmyrah flour already described, including induction of malignant lymphomas, immunosuppression, neurotoxicity, and clastogenicity.

The neurotoxicity of an edible portion of the young shoot of the palmyra palm was confirmed in rat studies. Extracts of this material were shown to contain the toxic factor, which was found to be heat-stable and insoluble in organic solvents. The toxin contains a cationic functional group and has a molecular weight of approximately 1400.

Flour from the young shoot, when fed for prolonged periods to adult male rats, produced chronic hepatic lesions including intraluminal fibrosis of the centrilobular and portal veins, bile duct proliferation, increase of reticulin, and fibrosis. The vascular lesions commenced as subendothelial swelling projecting into the lumen, in which collagen deposition ended in almost total obliteration of the lumen. The toxic factor(s) responsible are suggested to be different from pyrrolizidine alkaloids and dimethylnitrosamine, which have been documented to produce similar lesions.

Immunosuppressive Effects

Suppression of cell-mediated immunity was observed following oral feeding of mice with palmyrah flour (Borassus flabellifer L.), as reported in the Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science (1985).

Clastogenic Effects

A clastogenic effect (chromosomal breakage) of aqueous extracts of palmyrah flour on human blood lymphocytes was reported in Mutation Research (1981).

Standardization and Characterization Limitations

Though the plant is widely used for its therapeutic potency and nutritional values, proper pharmacognostic standardization has not been uniformly performed. While collective findings highlight the potential of Borassus flabellifer as a good source of phytopharmaceuticals and natural drug candidates, further preclinical and clinical investigations are required to validate its efficacy and safety for therapeutic applications.

Standardization of flavonoid content is lacking, making dosage guidelines imprecise.

Part-Specific Safety Profile

The documented toxicological concerns — mutagenicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunosuppression, and clastogenicity — apply specifically to flour made from young palmyra shoot sprouts, which has been consumed as a food staple in parts of Sri Lanka. The ripe fruit pulp, inflorescence sap, and jaggery have extensive histories of consumption as foods without equivalent documented toxicological concerns, though systematic human safety studies are absent.

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