Lollipop Climber (Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity: Botanical Name, Common Names, and Natural Source
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey, a vine in the family Cucurbitaceae, is commonly known by several English names including cucumber, native bryony, striped cucumber, lollipop climber, marble vine, and red-striped cucumber. The accepted scientific name was formally published as Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey in the Kew Bulletin 15: 352 (1962).
The plant is known by a wide variety of regional names across Asia and Africa. In Sanskrit it is called Lingini, Sivati, and Sivalingi; in Hindi, Shivalingi, Lingini, and Ishwari; in Tamil, Iswari and Nari-attu-tiga; in Telugu, Iswari and Aswiri; in Kannada, Lingatondeballi; in Malayalam, Iswari; in Marathi, Shivlingi; in Bengali, Isholori and Bara Gokhru; in Odia, Mahakal; and in Assamese, Bhimbu. Additional Ayurvedic names include Lingini, Shivalingi, and Chitraphalaa.
The fruit of this plant contains numerous seeds that resemble the Shivling icon of Lord Shiva, which is the etymological basis for the name "Shivlingi."
Taxonomically, the species belongs to the order Cucurbitales, family Cucurbitaceae, tribe Benincaseae, and genus Diplocyclos. Three subspecies are recognized: D. p. subsp. affinis, D. p. subsp. palmatus, and D. p. subsp. pedata. The genus Diplocyclos comprises 4 species, three of which are confined to Africa.
1.1 Botanical Description
Diplocyclos palmatus is a short-lived, perennial climbing plant producing annual, much-branched stems up to 6 metres long from a fleshy rootstock; the stems scramble over the ground, climbing into the surrounding vegetation by means of tendrils.
Leaves are alternate and simple, with petiole 2–10 cm long; the blade is broadly ovate, palmately 5(–7)-lobed, up to 14 cm × 15 cm, with a cordate base and lobes that are narrowly elliptical, with sinuate-dentate margins. The inflorescence is an axillary cluster with usually both male and female flowers in the same axil; flowers are unisexual, regular, 5-merous, and white to greenish-yellow.
The fruit is a subglobose, indehiscent berry 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter, solitary or clustered, red with silvery-white longitudinal stripes. Berries are initially green with white blotched stripes and later turn a bright red-orange color when ripe; ripe fruits bear 6–10 brown, obovate seeds per fruit that are irregularly shaped — vaguely like tear drops or bird skulls — compressed, 4 mm in length and 3 mm in width, and usually encircled by a prominent raised band.
1.2 Geographic Distribution and Habitat
Lollipop climbers are native to Australia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and tropical Africa, and are largely distributed in warmer rainforests. Diplocyclos palmatus occurs in different types of vegetation but usually in wet localities, such as swampy forests, flood-plains, and valleys, at altitudes up to 1800 m.
A particular focus of recent taxonomic reviews has been on recurring confusion in the literature, where multiple and sometimes erroneous scientific names have been used, leading to misidentification and challenges in consistent communication among researchers. Field surveys confirm the perennial nature of the plant, which contradicts some earlier classifications.
1.3 Common Forms and Preparations
The seeds are the primary part used in medicine, almost exclusively in classical Ayurvedic formulations. The roots and leaves are also mentioned in ethnobotanical uses but are less common. Preparations documented in ethnobotanical sources include seed powders, leaf juices, whole-plant decoctions, fruit and seed pills made with excipients such as jaggery, and topical pastes from the whole plant. The leaves are often emphasized for anti-inflammatory and metabolic properties, while the seeds are a rich source of unique, potent cucurbitacins.
In modern experimental research, extracts have been prepared using a variety of solvents. Extraction of the leaves of Diplocyclos palmatus has been carried out by cold maceration using solvents such as chloroform, methanol, ethanol, and water. Sequential extraction with hexane, chloroform, methanol, and water has also been employed on leaves and fruits for phytochemical and antioxidant analyses.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 Ayurvedic Tradition (Indian Subcontinent)
Shivalingi (Diplocyclos palmatus Linn.) is a medicinal plant of Ayurveda whose fruits have important use in the area of reproductive medicine — specifically female infertility, aphrodisiac, tonic, and leucorrhoea — and the plant, especially the fruits, has immense folklore usage even today. It has been described in Ayurvedic classical texts such as Rajanighantu and Nighantu ratnakara.
Traditionally, this plant has been used in folk medicine and possesses several recognized activities in traditional systems, including gynecological, anti-asthmatic, anti-convulsant, anti-venom, anti-inflammatory, androgenic, and antioxidant uses.
Specific preparations recorded in traditional Ayurvedic practice include:
- For blocked fallopian tubes: 1 teaspoon of lollipop climber seed powder taken with warm water on an empty stomach every morning for at least 2 to 3 months.
- For infertility: dried seed powder combined with Putra jeevak seed powder, with half a teaspoon of each powder taken twice a day for 3 months.
- For increasing chances of conception: seeds of the plant taken with milk, traditionally stated to promote conception.
- For improving sperm count: seed powder taken as a supplement.
- During pregnancy: seeds made into small pills with jaggery and taken twice a day for approximately half a month.
- Cough, diabetes, and abdominal gas: leaf juice with honey or sugar administered orally.
- Biliousness: leaf juice mixed with milk; burns: plant decoction applied externally; carbuncles and furuncles: whole plant paste applied topically; fever: seeds made into a paste.
2.2 African Ethnomedicine
In Kenya, roots are used as an antivenin and fruits and leaves are used to cure stomach-ache. Various parts of the plant are used in headache, ague, colic pain, enlarged spleen, paralysis of tongue, delirium, and convulsions.
2.3 South and South-East Asian Ethnobotany
In Thailand, stems are used as an expectorant and fruits as a laxative; in Nepal, seeds are used as a febrifuge. Young fruits and shoots are occasionally eaten in South-East Asia, with reported use across Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, and Nepal, although in some areas the plant is considered toxic while in others it is harvested for local use as food.
2.4 Other Traditional Uses
The entire plant is used for relief from constipation in some traditions. Roots are used as anti-venom; fruits and leaves are used to cure stomach-ache; stems are used as an expectorant; fruits are used as a laxative; seeds are employed as a febrifuge; and leaves are used as an external application for inflammation.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Cucurbitacins
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey is an important medicinal plant used in several reproductive medicines and serves as a wide source of tetracyclic triterpenes called cucurbitacins. Cucurbitacins B, D, E, and I are bitter triterpenoids found throughout the plant, with high concentration in the fruit and seeds.
Optimization studies have quantified the yields of cucurbitacins under defined extraction conditions: ideal conditions produced the highest cucurbitacin I (CUI) content of 2.345 ± 0.1686 mg/g dry weight, while the highest yield of cucurbitacin B (CUB) was 1.584 ± 0.15 mg/g dry weight.
3.2 Phenolic Compounds and Flavonoids
In RP-HPLC analysis, the major bioactive phenolic compounds identified in leaves include catechin (CA) and hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA), while chlorogenic acid (CLA) is a principal compound in fruit.
The fruits of D. palmatus are notably rich in phenolic compounds, cucurbitacins, alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, and saponins, known for their reported antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. Among these, flavonoids and triterpenoids are particularly noteworthy for their antioxidant properties; flavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin are known for their strong antioxidant activity — capable of neutralizing free radicals, inhibiting oxidative damage to biomolecules, and enhancing the body's endogenous antioxidant defense systems.
In one study, the highest yield of leaf extract was obtained from the ethanolic extract, and the active constituent isoquercetin depicted the best docking score of −8 kcal/mol in in-silico antifungal analysis.
3.3 Seed-Specific Compounds
D. palmatus seeds contain approximately 12% essential oil, as well as various proteins including bryonin, punicic acid (a type of trans fatty acid), goniothalamin, non-ionic glucomannan, and lipids.
Punicic acid, a trans fatty acid that is rare in plants, has been isolated from Diplocyclos palmatus.
3.4 Other Phytochemicals
Phytochemical analyses of the dried fruit have revealed the presence of organic constituents including alkaloids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, and proteins. Additional alkaloid classes identified include indole alkaloids and trace amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids; these alkaloids, though in lower concentrations than cucurbitacins, may contribute to the overall pharmacological profile, particularly neuro-pharmacological effects and potential toxicity.
4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
Important note on evidence quality: The body of scientific research on Diplocyclos palmatus consists almost entirely of in vitro (cell-based) and in vivo (animal) studies. No peer-reviewed controlled clinical trials in human populations have been identified in the available literature. All pharmacological findings described below derive from preclinical research and should be understood accordingly. Various bioactive compounds and pharmacological properties have been reported, substantiating several of its traditional uses; however, while preliminary studies support many ethnomedicinal claims, further targeted research — particularly into its application for fertility enhancement — is needed to validate its efficacy through experimental and clinical investigations.
4.1 Antioxidant Activity
Diplocyclos palmatus is a medicinal plant whose fruits have been reported to have antioxidant activity due to potent bioactive compounds. Studies have evaluated antioxidant activity using in-vitro assays including DPPH free radical scavenging, ABTS radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), hydroxyl free radical scavenging, and reactive nitrogen oxide scavenging assays.
In one study, the fruit extract showed the highest antioxidant activity against hydroxyl free radicals (IC₅₀ = 476.76 µg/mL), followed by nitric oxide radicals (IC₅₀ = 509.06 µg/mL), DPPH• (IC₅₀ = 601.88 µg/mL), ABTS•+ (IC₅₀ = 709.37 µg/mL), and FRAP (IC₅₀ = 1141.76 µg/mL).
In a separate study on aerial parts, total phenolic content was higher (10.5 mg/g) than flavonoid content (3.78 mg/g), and the IC₅₀ of the extract for scavenging of hydroxyl radical and DPPH was 125.61 ± 0.834 µg/mL and 353.71 ± 0.663 µg/mL, respectively.
In network pharmacology analysis, bioactive compounds of D. palmatus fruits were found to target numerous major cellular proteins — including AKT1, GAPDH, ALB, CASP3, PTGS2, PPARG, STAT3, EGFR, ESR1, and MMP9 — with a notable impact on the estrogen signaling pathway. Molecular docking and dynamics analyses further validated the antioxidant potential of D. palmatus fruits.
Evidence strength: In vitro and in-silico only. No human clinical data.
4.2 Anti-inflammatory and Antiarthritic Activity
The antiarthritic activity of the ethanol extract of Diplocyclos palmatus was investigated using the Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced arthritis model, which involves heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis in paraffin oil as an adjuvant. Rat adjuvant-induced arthritis is a commonly used animal model for preclinical studies of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs.
The antiarthritic activity of the ethanolic extract of Diplocyclos palmatus (EEDP) was studied against Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats; EEDP was administered at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight, and parameters including paw volume, joint diameter, thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia, biochemical parameters, haematological parameters, and histopathology of synovial joint were observed. Diclofenac was taken as the standard comparator.
It was concluded that the ethanol extract of Diplocyclos palmatus seeds possesses analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antiarthritic activities in the animal model, and the proposed mechanisms involve combined activity of flavonoids, saponins, steroids, and triterpenoids — the major components of the ethanol extract. The possible mechanisms include inhibition of release and/or actions of vasoactive substances such as histamine, serotonin, kinins, and prostaglandins.
Separate work concluded that the ethanolic seed extract of Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey possesses analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.
Evidence strength: Preclinical animal studies only (rodent models). No human clinical data.
4.3 Antidiabetic Activity
Anti-diabetic activity of Diplocyclos palmatus Linn. has been investigated in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice (Tripathi et al., published in Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 2012, 46: 352–359).
In vitro antidiabetic potential via inhibition of the alpha-amylase enzyme revealed an IC₅₀ of the extract at 146.31 ± 0.415 µg/mL and 286.23 ± 0.671 µg/mL in starch iodine and 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) assays, respectively.
Diplocyclos palmatus has been described as a natural remedy for female infertility, obesity, and diabetes; in totality it is reported to have analgesic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, androgenic, antitumor, fertility, and antipyretic properties.
Evidence strength: In vitro enzyme-inhibition assays and one reported in vivo mouse model. No human clinical data.
4.4 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
The extracts of D. palmatus have displayed antibacterial activity in studies using the disc diffusion method for in-vitro antibacterial evaluation.
Researchers have carried out extraction, phytochemical evaluation, and in vitro and in silico antifungal evaluation of the leaves of Diplocyclos palmatus, both for antifungal efficacy and in-silico docking. The highest yield was obtained from the ethanolic leaf extract, and the active constituent isoquercetin showed the best molecular docking score of −8 kcal/mol against the Orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase enzyme target, surpassing the standard drugs luliconazole (−7.2 kcal/mol) and terbinafine (−7.3 kcal/mol) in the in-silico comparison.
Evidence strength: In vitro disc diffusion and in-silico docking only. No human or animal clinical trial data for infection outcomes.
4.5 Anticonvulsant Activity
Chloroform, alcoholic, and aqueous extracts of dried leaves were screened for acute toxicity and anticonvulsant activity against maximal electroshock (MES) and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) convulsions using Wistar albino rats. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of the maximum chemical constituents in the chloroform extract. No significant changes in average body weight of animals were found up to the tested oral dose of 3000 mg/kg. The in vivo study revealed anticonvulsant activity of the chloroform and alcoholic extracts.
Evidence strength: Rodent in vivo model only. No human clinical data.
4.6 Analgesic Activity
In studies using tail immersion, tail clip, and radiant heat methods at different doses (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, 400 mg/kg), the ethanolic extract of D. palmatus fruits demonstrated analgesic activity. The tail immersion method at 200 mg/kg showed notably good results at 10 min (11.4 ± 1.93) and 15 min (13.4 ± 1.63); the analgesic and antimicrobial activity of the ethanolic extract of D. palmatus fruits was found to be more significant compared to other parts of the plant.
Evidence strength: Preclinical animal studies only.
4.7 Reproductive and Fertility-Related Activity
Shivalingi (Diplocyclos palmatus Linn.) is a plant of Ayurveda with the fruits having important use in the area of reproductive medicine, including female infertility, aphrodisiac applications, tonic use, and leucorrhoea. The seeds of this plant are traditionally held to help balance hormones and assist in infertility treatment.
Network pharmacology analysis identified bioactive compounds of D. palmatus fruits as targeting cellular proteins with a notable impact on the estrogen signaling pathway, which provides a preliminary mechanistic framework for the traditional gynecological uses. However, no controlled clinical trials in humans have been conducted, and the scientific basis for fertility claims remains at the level of traditional use and computational/preliminary laboratory research.
Evidence strength: Traditional use with supporting in silico pharmacological network data only. No human clinical data.
4.8 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity
For targeted cytotoxicity, the high concentration of cucurbitacins B and E, which are cytotoxic and apoptotic compounds, makes this plant a potent source for anticancer research; saponins may modulate this activity. The plant has been identified as having numerous reported health benefits including anticancer properties, based on reviews of the existing research literature.
Evidence strength: In vitro cytotoxicity data and in silico analysis only. No human clinical data.
5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Lollipop Climber
Based on the available ethnobotanical and preclinical scientific literature, Diplocyclos palmatus has been associated with the following body systems and health areas:
- Reproductive system: Female infertility, aphrodisiac use, tonic, and leucorrhoea are the primary Ayurvedic reproductive applications.
- Musculoskeletal system: The plant is reputed to have antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory properties.
- Metabolic system: Anti-diabetic properties have been reported and studied in animal models.
- Nervous system: Various plant parts are used in traditional medicine for headache, ague, delirium, convulsions, and paralysis of the tongue.
- Respiratory system: Traditional use includes the treatment of bronchitis, cough, and asthma.
- Gastrointestinal system: Fruits are used as a laxative in traditional Thai medicine.
- Immune and anti-infective: Antibacterial and anti-infective properties have been identified in the available literature.
- Dermatological: Whole plant paste is applied topically for carbuncles and furuncles in traditional preparations.
- Toxicology/envenomation: Roots are used as an anti-venom in some traditions.
6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research
The following dosages have been specifically reported in the scientific studies identified in this review. These are preclinical (animal) doses and are provided strictly as reported; they do not constitute recommendations for human use.
- In the Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis study in rats, the ethanolic extract of Diplocyclos palmatus seeds was administered at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight.
- In analgesic studies using tail immersion, tail clip, and radiant heat methods, doses of 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 400 mg/kg of the ethanolic fruit extract were tested at 0–5 minute intervals up to 30 minutes; the 200 mg/kg dose showed notably good results in the tail immersion and radiant heat methods, while 400 mg/kg showed best output in the tail clip method.
- In the anticonvulsant study using Wistar albino rats, no significant changes in average body weight were found at a tested oral dose up to 3000 mg/kg.
Traditional-use preparations documented in ethnobotanical sources (not clinical doses) include:
- For blocked fallopian tubes: 1 teaspoon of seed powder with warm water on an empty stomach every morning for at least 2–3 months.
- For infertility (combined powder): half a teaspoon of each seed powder twice daily for 3 months.
- For pregnancy-related use: 2 seed-and-jaggery pills twice daily for half a month.
7. Safety Considerations
A critical duality exists in the literature: the plant possesses significant therapeutic potential alongside documented toxicity, particularly in the fruit pulp and seeds, which necessitates cautious and knowledgeable application.
In some geographic areas the plant is considered toxic, whilst in others it is harvested from the wild for local use as both food and medicine. Dried leaves have caused deaths in calves and ewes in some reported instances.
The seeds are considered highly toxic in some traditions; ingestion can cause severe gastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death.
The presence of alkaloids, though in lower concentrations than cucurbitacins, may contribute to the overall pharmacological profile, particularly neuro-pharmacological effects and potential toxicity. The story of Diplocyclos palmatus is therefore one of powerful dualism: profound therapeutic potential intertwined with significant toxicity, requiring an integrated view that accounts for both.
Overexploitation of wild plants and low seed germination have resulted in the decline of the species in the wild, which has raised conservation concerns alongside safety considerations.
Regarding specific toxicological compounds:
- Cucurbitacins B, D, E, and I are bitter triterpenoids concentrated especially in the fruit and seeds and are known within the broader cucurbitaceae literature to be cytotoxic at elevated concentrations.
- Trace amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids have also been identified, a class of compounds associated with hepatotoxicity when consumed in significant quantities.
- Traditional medicinal use classifies this plant as potentially toxic and states it is used with extreme caution in specific traditional formulations.
The fruits are considered poisonous in some countries. Young fruits and shoots are occasionally eaten in South-East Asia, indicating that regional tradition and preparation method substantially affect perceived edibility and safety.
8. Conservation Status
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey, commonly referred to as "Shivalingi" or "Lollipop climber," is a valuable medicinal plant with a climbing growth habit used in traditional medicine, reputed to have antiarthritic and anti-diabetic properties and to be useful in various skin and reproductive problems. Overexploitation of wild plants and low seed germination have resulted in the decline of the species in the wild, and investigations have been aimed at establishing effective in vitro propagation procedures for its large-scale production and conservation.
9. Summary of Evidence
This climbing plant belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family has numerous health benefits reported in the literature, including antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-infective, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, anticancer, antithrombotic, antivenom, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the totality of scientific investigation on Diplocyclos palmatus remains at the preclinical stage. All pharmacological studies identified are in vitro, in vivo (animal), or in silico. While preliminary studies support many ethnomedicinal claims, further targeted research — particularly into its application for fertility enhancement — is needed to validate its efficacy through experimental and clinical investigations.
The substantial traditional use across multiple continents and medical traditions, combined with preliminary phytochemical and pharmacological data, suggests scientific plausibility for several of the plant's reputed effects. Nonetheless, the absence of human clinical trial data, the documented risk of toxicity, and the presence of compounds such as cucurbitacins and pyrrolizidine alkaloids mean that scientific caution is warranted in interpreting existing findings.
References
Go back