Lodhtree

Lodh Tree (Symplocos racemosa Roxb.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Name, Natural Source, and Common Forms

1.1 Botanical and Taxonomic Identity

Symplocos racemosa Roxb. belongs to the unigeneric family Symplocaceae and is known as lodhra in Sanskrit. It is a small evergreen tree found throughout tropical and subtropical countries. The plant is a small evergreen tree with a broad crown, with stems growing up to 6 m high. A separate description in the same species literature notes the tree can range from 6 to 8.5 m in height and is found in the plains and lower hills throughout North and East India, ascending in the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1,400 m, Bengal, Assam, and Chhota Nagpur.

Lodhra leaves are 3 to 4 inches long, circular or oval shaped, with a small leaf stalk and a velvety texture. Flowering generally occurs in November and continues through February. Flowers are cream-colored, small in size, and mostly found in clusters. The fruit is purple-blackish in color and about 1.5 inches long. Fruits contain about 1 to 3 seeds.

The plant usually grows to a height of 6 metres and is primarily found in the northeastern hilly areas of the Indian subcontinent (Nagpur, Manipur) and Burma, and is also distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Australia, America, and Malaysia.

1.2 Nomenclature and Synonyms

In Sanskrit, it is known as Lodhra, which means "propitious," or Tilaka, because it is used in making the tilaka mark (bindi) on the forehead, possibly due to the presence of red coloring matter. In Europe, it was formerly looked upon as a substitute for cinchona bark and has been known at various times as Ecorce de latour, China nova, China californica, China brasilensis, and China paraguatan, known as lotur bark.

The plant bears several regional names across South and Southeast Asia. The bark has been described as an emmenagogue tonic in several regional traditions; in the Telugu language the plant is known as mugam; in Kannada as sapara or lodhuga; and in Urdu as balaloddi or shaabara mara.

1.3 Related and Substitute Species

Some other varieties such as Symplocos crataegoides Buch.-Ham. and Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore are also used as a source for S. racemosa. Conservation data for the genus Symplocos show that S. racemosa is vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild, whereas S. cochinchinensis was found to be a near-threatened medicinal plant.

1.4 Plant Part Used and Common Preparations

Although the entire plant, including the leaves, roots, flowers, and all, is quite useful, it is the stem bark that has the most importance and is used in the preparation of traditional medicines of Ayurveda and Unani.

From ancient times, lodhra has been used in various forms such as churna (powder), asava (fermented liquid), kashaya (decoction), and lepa (topical paste). Traditional literature indicates that a total of 32 formulations contain S. racemosa bark as one of the major ingredients as mentioned in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (2001), for the treatment of various ailments.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurvedic Tradition

Lodhra has a well-documented history in classical Ayurvedic works such as the Charaka Samhita (circa 1st–2nd century CE) and the Sushruta Samhita. Charaka Samhita considers lodhra a Shonit Sthapana (blood-staunching), Pureesha Sangrahniya (stool-consolidating), and Sandhaniya (tissue-uniting) herb; in the Sushruta Samhita, lodhra is classified under Lodhradi Gana and Nyagrodhadi Gana.

In classical literature, lodhra is also considered a Divya Aushadhi (divine herb), and in various Ayurvedic classics and Nighantus, it is described as useful for Rakta Pitta (bleeding disorders), Atisara (diarrhea), Pradara (abnormal vaginal discharge), Sotha (edema), Netra Roga (eye disorders), Pravahika (dysentery), and Yuvan Pidika (acne).

Over medieval periods, scholars such as Vagbhata praised lodhra in the Ashtanga Hridaya for female health, especially menstrual disorders and leucorrhoea. The Ayurvedic system describes the bark's properties as follows: taste: astringent; properties: light; potency: cool; transformation with digestion: pungent; and uses include being good for the eyes, stimulating appetite, helping digestion, and being used in cough and acidity.

2.2 Ethnobotanical Uses Across Cultures and Regions

Ethnobotanical literature indicates use of S. racemosa in the treatment of eye disease, skin diseases, ear diseases, liver and bowel complaints, tumors, uterine disorders, spongy and bleeding gums, asthma, fever, snake bite, gonorrhea, and arthritis.

The bark is boiled in water to form a gelatinous mass, which is then applied topically to treat microfractures or dislocated bones. Ethnomedicinal uses also encompass treatment for dysentery, bowel complaints, inflammations, vaginal discharges, abortion and miscarriage, and snake bites.

The stem bark is used in the preparation of traditional medicines in both the Ayurvedic and Unani systems. The coloring matter obtained from the bark has also been used for producing a yellow-colored dye for dyeing cloth.

2.3 Classical Ayurvedic Formulations

Some important formulations that contain lodhra as a key ingredient include: Abhrak bhasma, Chandanasava, Dashmularishta, Gangadharchurna, Irimedadi taila, Jatyadi taila, Lodhrasava, Pushyanug churna, Rodhrasava, and Vastyamayantaka ghrita, among others. The most important formulations of lodhra are considered to be Lodhrasava, Pusyanuga Churna, Brihat Gangadhara Churna, Dashamoolarishta, and Arimedadi Taila.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Alkaloids

Alkaloids identified in S. racemosa include loturine, loturidine, colloturine, and harmine. Research has highlighted the presence of alkaloids like loturine and loturidine, which exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties.

3.2 Phenolic Glycosides and Flavonoids

Phenolic glycosides reported from the bark of S. racemosa include salirepin, symplocuronic acid, sympocemoside, benzoyl salireposide, salireposide, and four triterpenes; these compounds have featured phosphodiesterase inhibitory activity.

A novel isoflavone glycoside, peseudobatigenin 7-O-[β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1''''→5''')-O-β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1'''→6'')]-β-d-glucopyranoside, named sympracemoside, was isolated from the aerial parts of Symplocos racemosa, along with 15 known flavonoids.

Several flavanol glucosides have been identified, including symplocoside, symposide, leucopelargonidine-3-glucoside, ellagic acid, and rhamnetin 3-digalactoside.

3.3 Triterpenoids and Sterols

Phytochemical studies have indicated the presence of many phenolic glycosides like symplocoside, triterpenoids like betulinic acid, acetyloleanolic acid, and oleanolic acid, and flavonoids like quercetin. Additional chemical constituents include triterpenes such as betulin and butulinic acid, flavonoids, anthrasinins, symposide, tannins including ellagic acid, and alkaloids including loturine, loturidine, and colloturine.

3.4 Anthraquinone Derivatives

Isolation of a wide range of bioactive compounds from this plant has been reported, including flavonoids, tannins, loturine, loturidine, colloturine, linoleic acid, salireposide, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-glycoside, symploveroside, benzoylsalireposide, locoracemosides A, B, and C, ethyl-substituted glycosides, salerapin, and phenolic glycosides. Three new alkyl-substituted anthraquinone derivatives, trivially named symploquinones A–C, have also been isolated from Symplocos racemosa.

3.5 Compounds Identified by High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Through high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), seven metabolites — diselane, catechin, fraxetin, eriodictyol, coumarin, panaxynol, and ursolic acid — have been identified in S. racemosa bark and exhibit significant antioxidant activity.

3.6 Overall Phytochemical Profile

The qualitative phytochemical profile of S. racemosa bark extract comprises alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, phenolics, glucosides, sterols, fatty acids, coumarins, and terpenoids. Quantitative study has revealed that S. racemosa bark extract contains total phenolics and flavonoids of 16.33 ± 2.43 mg/g of gallic acid equivalents and 24.26 ± 1.69 mg/g of rutin equivalents, respectively.

4. Pharmacological Evidence by Area of Use

Important note on evidence strength: The overwhelming majority of published research on S. racemosa consists of in vitro (cell-based) and in vivo (animal model) studies. Many ethnobotanical claims have been confirmed through systematic in-vitro and in-vivo pharmacological studies on different extracts of stem bark and isolated constituents. However, systematic studies on biomarkers are desirable to establish the mode of action and to validate traditional claims in clinical practice after proper safety assessment. Human clinical trials are sparse; this limitation is noted explicitly under each area below.

4.1 Female Reproductive System and Gynecological Disorders

Traditional claim: The bark of the lodh tree has been traditionally used as a uterine tonic. Traditionally, bark is given in menorrhagia and other female reproductive dysfunctions, which are some of the symptoms of PCOS.

Animal evidence — gonadotropin effects: An in vivo study investigated the effect of aqueous extracts of S. racemosa Roxb. (Fam. Symplocaceae) on serum FSH and LH levels in immature female Sprague–Dawley rats under basal conditions. Aqueous extract administered orally significantly stimulated serum FSH level (P < 0.016) along with a rise in serum LH level (P < 0.001). Histopathological studies revealed enhanced folliculogenesis, the presence of mature follicles and detached oocytes, resulting from increased FSH and LH levels. An increase in ovary weight in treated animals was also found due to the observed FSH surge.

Animal evidence — anti-androgenic effects in PCOS model: A study investigated the anti-androgenic properties of S. racemosa in the treatment of hyperandrogenemia associated with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in a letrozole-induced PCOS rat model. The low (250 mg/kg), mid (500 mg/kg), and high dose (1,000 mg/kg) of S. racemosa were given to PCOS-induced rats for 15 days post-letrozole induction to determine the effective dose in the treatment of hyperandrogenemia-associated PCOS. S. racemosa significantly restored other blood biochemical parameters such as estrogen, progesterone, and cholesterol levels. It also restored the histology of ovarian tissue. The ovarian weights and uterine weights were also significantly recovered after treatment. The mid dose (500 mg/kg) and high dose (1,000 mg/kg) of S. racemosa were found to be effective in the treatment of hyperandrogenemia in PCOS.

Animal evidence — stress-induced reproductive dysfunction: A study evaluated the ethanolic extract of bark in treating female reproductive dysfunctions. Cold restraint stress (4°C for 3 hours per day for 28 days) was used as a stressor to induce changes in reproductive dysfunctions. The ethanolic extract of bark at two different doses showed promising results in treating female reproductive dysfunctions induced by cold restraint stress.

Polyherbal formulation (animal): A polyherbal formulation "DXB-2030," which is a combination of Trigonella foenum-graecum, Aloe vera, Sphaeranthus indicus, Nardostachys jatamansi, and Symplocos racemosa, was prepared based on the etiology and pathogenesis of PCOS. The herbs were mixed in proportions based on Ayurvedic criteria to obtain a blend targeted against multiple aspects of PCOS in a holistic approach.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical (animal models and in vitro). No published, peer-reviewed randomized controlled human clinical trials specific to S. racemosa in gynecological conditions were identified in the literature reviewed.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Animal studies: Hot plate, writhing test, formalin test, and carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice and rats were performed for determination of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities on S. racemosa bark extract. The results exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect at 300 and 500 mg/kg doses.

The ethanolic extract of the bark significantly reduced paw edema in carrageenan-induced paws of the rat.

In vitro protein denaturation assay: The aim of one in vitro study was to analyze the anti-inflammatory activity of S. racemosa using a protein denaturation assay. Bark powder was mixed with distilled water, boiled, and filtered. Bovine serum albumin was added to various concentrations of plant extract, and percentage inhibition was evaluated. The study found that lodhra has significant anti-inflammatory activity; at 50 µL concentration, the plant extract showed anti-inflammatory activity of 76%.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; primarily in vitro and animal-model studies. No human clinical trials specifically for anti-inflammatory endpoints have been identified.

4.3 Hepatoprotective Activity

Animal studies: One study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective activity of ethanol extract of S. racemosa (EESR) bark on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic damage in rats. The degree of hepatoprotection was measured using serum transaminases (AST and ALT), alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, albumin, and total protein levels. Significant improvement was observed in liver morphological and histopathological parameters. The extract was found to be an effective hepatoprotective agent in CCl4-induced hepatic damage.

A further study evaluated the hepatoprotective activity of methanolic extract of S. racemosa (MESR) bark extract at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg/body weight/rat/day in paracetamol-induced hepatic damage in rats over 7 days. Hepatoprotection was assessed through serum transaminases (AST and ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) on the 8th day, and histopathological observations. The results from this work indicate that MESR bark is an effective hepatoprotective agent against paracetamol-induced hepatic damage.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only (rat models). Human clinical evidence for hepatoprotective endpoints is absent from the reviewed literature.

4.4 Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity

In vitro studies: A study published in BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology (2020) focused on highlighting the importance of S. racemosa's phytoconstituents as a potential source of novel antimicrobials against planktonic as well as biofilm-forming microorganisms, along with their antiproliferative activity. The biosafety of the phytoconstituents was also established, followed by detection of probable antimicrobial components. The best organic extractant and major groups of phytoconstituents were tested for their antimicrobial activity against reference microbial strains and drug-resistant clinical isolates.

The hexane extract was active against Candida albicans and Klebsiella pneumoniae, while the chloroform extract was completely inactive against all tested microorganisms. The ethyl acetate extract and the butanolic extract did not differ significantly in efficacy from each other, but ethyl acetate had a higher average inhibition zone against test organisms and was considered the best organic extractant. Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae 2, and Candida tropicalis, however, remained resistant to all organic extracts of S. racemosa.

Major phytochemical groups such as flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, and phytosterols were detected; however, alkaloids, diterpenes, and coumarins were absent in this particular extract preparation.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. Results are organism-specific and solvent-dependent. No human clinical antimicrobial trials have been reported.

4.5 Antioxidant Activity

S. racemosa bark extract showed dose-dependent DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity up to the tested level of 150 µg/mL. The EC50 value for S. racemosa bark extract for DPPH and ABTS was determined as 88.67 ± 3.05 and 91.78 ± 5.27 µg/mL, respectively. The extract has significant antioxidant activity, which is frequently linked to its phenolic and flavonoid compounds.

In the flavonoid fraction study published in Molecules (2015), compounds 3, 9, and 16 showed moderate inhibitory activities against NO production with IC50 values of 88.2, 42.1, and 74.3 μM, respectively.

Evidence strength: In vitro. These results have not been translated into human trials.

4.6 Anticancer Activity

Majority of phytopharmacological reports on the stem bark include anti-cancer activity among other properties. The anti-proliferative potential of the most active groups of phytoconstituents was evaluated against cancerous cell lines.

Research reported that benzoylsalireposide and salireposide isolated from S. racemosa inhibited phosphodiesterase I activity. Phosphodiesterase I inhibitory activity of benzoyl salireposide and salireposide was performed using phosphodiesterase I enzyme from snake venom and human nucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase-1. Results indicated that both isolated compounds have phosphodiesterase I inhibitory activity.

Evidence strength: In vitro and animal models only. No human oncology trials have been published for S. racemosa as an intervention.

4.7 Wound Healing Activity

A 2024 computational study evaluated constituents of S. racemosa for wound healing potential via matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibition. Matrix metalloproteinases are associated with widespread pathological ailments, and selective inhibitors for metalloproteinases are of great interest in wound healing strategies. Six constituents of Symplocos racemosa Roxb were evaluated for their docking aptitudes on human matrix metalloproteinase MMP-2 (PDB ID: 1QIB) and MMP-9 (PDB ID: 4H1Q) utilizing Autodock Vina.

Evidence strength: Computational/in silico; no clinical wound healing trials identified.

4.8 Antidiabetic Activity

Despite its ethnomedicinal claims, the antidiabetic potential of S. racemosa had not been fully evaluated scientifically prior to recent studies. A study was carried out to investigate the antidiabetic activity of methanolic bark extract. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was used to evaluate glucose tolerance. The ability of the extract to significantly suppress the rise in blood glucose levels during OGTT suggests its antidiabetic potential by improving glucose tolerance, possibly by potentiating the insulin effect of plasma through regeneration of β-cells or increased insulin secretion.

Evidence strength: Animal model (alloxan-induced diabetic rats). No human clinical trials have been identified.

4.9 Digestive and Antidiarrheal Activity

The decoction prepared from the bark is given in a divided dose of 50–60 ml to treat diarrhea and bleeding piles. The decoction is described as constricting the smaller blood vessels and controlling bleeding.

Alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, and steroids are considered responsible for antiulcerogenic activity observed in experimental models.

Evidence strength: Ethnomedicinal and in vivo (animal models, isolated rabbit intestine). No published human clinical trials identified.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Lodh Tree

Based on the totality of ethnomedicinal and pharmacological literature, S. racemosa bark is associated with the following body systems:

• Female reproductive system: S. racemosa is an important Indian traditional drug used in many Ayurvedic and herbal formulations for the treatment of uterine disorders and leucorrhoea.
• Hepatic system: It is also used in formulations for the treatment of liver disorders.
• Integumentary system (skin): The bark is used to treat skin diseases, including acne, eczema, and wounds.
• Digestive system: Lodhra is used to alleviate digestive problems such as diarrhoea and dysentery; its astringent properties help in reducing intestinal inflammation.
• Ophthalmic system: It is mainly used in bleeding disorders, diarrhea, and eye disorders.
• Oral health: The bark is also used in oral hygiene products due to its antimicrobial properties.
• Musculoskeletal system: The bark is boiled in water to form a gelatinous mass, then applied topically to treat microfractures or dislocated bones.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

6.1 Dosages as Stated in Pharmacopoeial and Classical Sources

According to the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the clinical dose of S. racemosa for adults is 3–5 g of powder and 20–30 g of decoction per day, as stated in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (2001).

6.2 Dosages Reported in Pharmacological Studies

• Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects were observed at 300 and 500 mg/kg doses in rodent experiments.
• In the PCOS rat model study, low (250 mg/kg), mid (500 mg/kg), and high dose (1,000 mg/kg) of S. racemosa were administered to PCOS-induced rats for 15 days post-letrozole induction.
• For hepatoprotective assessment, methanolic bark extract was tested at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg/body weight/rat/day in paracetamol-induced hepatic damage in rats over 7 days.

6.3 Preparations Mentioned in Classical and Clinical Literature

• Churna (powder): The typical dosage for Lodhra churna (powder) is 1–3 grams, once or twice daily with water or as directed by an Ayurvedic physician.
• Decoction: The decoction prepared from the bark is given in a divided dose of 50–60 ml to treat diarrhea and bleeding piles.
• Topical paste (lepa): Used for skin conditions and bone injuries, prepared by boiling or grinding the bark.

7. Safety Considerations

7.1 Acute Toxicity Data

Acute toxicity studies in rats indicated no signs of toxicity or mortality at doses up to 2,000 mg/kg. The bark extract has demonstrated very low irritation potential and low cytotoxicity in in vitro models at 700 µg/mL.

No formal CIR (Cosmetic Ingredient Review) or SCCS (Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety) safety assessment is available for Symplocos racemosa bark extract. Specific dermal toxicity data is yet to be determined.

7.2 Biosafety in Antimicrobial Studies

In the BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology study (2020), in vitro biosafety of phytoconstituents was evaluated by the Ames assay and MTT assay, while in vivo biosafety of the most active phytoconstituents (flavonoids) was determined by acute oral toxicity.

7.3 Conservation Status as a Safety Concern for Supply

S. racemosa is vulnerable and facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. S. racemosa faces extinction risks due to its limited geographical distribution, necessitating conservation efforts. This status raises the risk of adulteration with related or unrelated species, which is a documented safety concern with bark-based Ayurvedic commodities.

7.4 Potential Interactions and Tolerability

Overuse or unsupervised use may lead to excessive dryness or constipation, due to the strongly astringent nature of the tannin-rich bark. Individuals with Vata aggravation or chronic dryness should use it cautiously.

Due to its pronounced tannin content, Lodhra bark harbors a range of beneficial properties attributable to its diverse array of active molecules such as symplocosides, symposides, and loturine. These bioactive constituents confer analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. However, high tannin content in herbs can inhibit the absorption of iron and other minerals when co-administered.

7.5 Gaps in Safety Data

Many ethnobotanical claims have been confirmed through systematic in-vitro and in-vivo pharmacological studies on different extracts of stem bark and isolated constituents. However, systematic studies on biomarkers are desirable to establish the mode of action and to validate traditional claims in clinical practice after proper safety assessment. Long-term human toxicity data and interaction data with pharmaceutical drugs are absent from the published peer-reviewed literature reviewed.

8. Current State of Evidence: Summary Assessment

The majority of phytopharmacological reports on S. racemosa stem bark include anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-androgenic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing activity, and antidiabetic effects. However, the evidence base remains firmly in the preclinical domain. Systematic studies are needed to validate traditional claims and establish biomarkers for clinical applications. The promise shown in animal models — particularly for gonadotropin modulation, anti-androgenic activity in PCOS, and hepatoprotection — has not yet been confirmed in well-designed, adequately powered human randomized controlled trials.

References

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• Same article — NIH PubMed Central version (PMC7672880).
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