Levant Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.): A Comprehensive Encyclopedic Reference
1. Identity and Botanical Classification
1.1 Nomenclature and Taxonomy
Gossypium herbaceum L., commonly known as Levant cotton or Indian cotton, is a diploid species of flowering plant in the mallow family, Malvaceae, recognized as one of the four primary cultivated cotton species alongside G. arboreum, G. hirsutum, and G. barbadense. The specific epithet herbaceum comes from the Latin herbāceus, meaning "herbaceous" or "grass-like," highlighting the species' non-woody, annual or short-lived perennial growth habit in contrast to some woody relatives in the genus.
Common names for Gossypium herbaceum include Levant cotton, referring to its historical introduction to Europe via trade routes through the Levant (eastern Mediterranean) region; Indian cotton, due to its long cultivation in the Indian subcontinent; and Arabian cotton, acknowledging its native range in Arabia. Additional vernacular names include Arabian cotton, Maltese cotton, karpas, kapas, paruthi, algodón, cotonnier, badar, habb-ul-qutn, and pambadana, among many others reflecting its wide geographic distribution.
1.2 Native Range and Botanical Description
Gossypium herbaceum is a species of cotton native to semi-arid regions of Southern Africa, as well as from Syria to Afghanistan, where it still grows perennially in the wild as a shrub. It is an Old World or Asiatic cotton with short staple-length fibre that is native to northern Africa, Asia Minor, and India.
The plant typically grows as a perennial shrub, characterized by its ability to thrive in semi-arid conditions. It features distinctive broad, lobed leaves which are alternately arranged and can reach up to 15 cm in length. The flowers are particularly striking, often appearing in vibrant hues of white, yellow, and pink, and the plant typically reaches between 1 to 2 meters in height. Gossypium herbaceum is a bushy shrub with a thick woody stem with soft hairy branches. Its leaves are separated from the centre and possess 3–7 partitions. The flowers are small, white, purple, red, or yellow in colour, with or without a red blotch at the base of the petals.
1.3 Common Preparations and Forms
The plant is a minor source of cotton fibre used for making clothes, rubber-type fabrics, stuffing material for pillows and cushions, surgical dressings, twine and ropes, and carpets. The seeds are edible when roasted and can be used as a coffee substitute. The seeds also produce oil that can be used in salads or as cooking oil. Medicinally, different plant parts are prepared in different ways for therapeutic application. In traditional Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, root decoctions of Gossypium herbaceum have been used to alleviate menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea) and promote lactation in postpartum women. The root bark was commonly brewed into teas or decoctions to support menstrual regulation and was considered helpful in easing symptoms of dysmenorrhea. Seeds are administered in powdered form or as capsules in clinical settings, as well as processed into oil. In an attempt to mitigate the gastric side effects of gossypol, one group of clinicians adopted enteric-coated tablets for clinical trials.
2. Historical and Traditional Use
2.1 Ancient and Classical Antiquity
Cotton was first domesticated in the Old World nearly 7,000 years ago. A notable early reference to Gossypium herbaceum comes from the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BCE. By the early Islamic era around 700 CE, it underpinned cotton production in Egypt, facilitating exports to the Roman and Byzantine worlds and contributing to social complexity in Nubian kingdoms. In Mughal India from the 16th century, G. herbaceum supported a booming textile sector, with hand-spun yarns driving commerce along the Indian Ocean routes and establishing cotton as a cornerstone of imperial wealth.
2.2 Ayurvedic and Unani Medical Traditions
G. herbaceum is an Old World cotton plant mainly used in Unani and Ayurvedic medicines in the treatment of bronchial asthma, inadequate lactation, diabetes, sexual debility, dysmenorrhea, general weakness, lung and skin diseases. In Unani medicine, leaves of Gossypium herbaceum are useful in ishal atfal (childhood diarrhea) and seeds are useful in qillatul laban (inadequate lactation). The plant is known in Ayurveda under the Sanskrit name karpas, and is referenced in classical texts as a remedy with uterine and galactagogue activity.
The cotton plant has medicinal uses and can be cultivated traditionally in house backyards for women's menstrual cycle pains and irregular bleeding. It is also known to be used after birth to expel the placenta and to increase lactation, as well as for gastrointestinal issues such as hemorrhages and diarrhea, for nausea, fevers, and headaches.
Gossypium herbaceum (Pambadana) is listed among the galactagogue herbs mentioned in the Unani pharmacopeia, alongside Withania somnifera, Nigella sativa, Asparagus racemosus, and others.
2.3 Traditional African Medicine
Gossypium herbaceum is widely used in traditional African medicine, especially root preparations. In Senegal, a root maceration is given to newborn babies and sickly or rachitic children to strengthen them.
2.4 Historical American Medical Use
The cotton lint has been in quite extensive use in the treatment of blisters, scalds, burns, severe bruises, and in rheumatic pains, being adopted by the medical profession from popular practice. However, the plant was well nigh unknown in the Materia Medica until 19th-century American physicians noted that the root possessed great medicinal value. Dr. Bouchelle regarded it as an excellent emmenagogue, not inferior to ergot in promoting uterine contraction, and stated that it was habitually and effectually resorted to by enslaved people of the American South for producing abortion.
It has been used as a milder and safer alternative to ergot (Claviceps purpurea) for inducing uterine contractions in order to speed a difficult labour. It can induce an abortion or the onset of a period, and reduces total menstrual flow.
2.5 Levant and Near Eastern Food Use
In the Levant, seeds of Gossypium herbaceum were used for food, feed, or oil extraction. Cotton seeds, containing up to 20% oil and 20% proteins, are potentially highly rich as food or feed.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Overall Phytochemical Profile
Gossypium herbaceum's major chemical constituents include flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrates, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, glycosides, resins, phenols, and proteins. As part of their active phytoconstituents, cotton plants contain proteins, phlorotannins, tannins, terpenes, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, triterpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, steroids, fatty and phenolic acids.
The leaf extract has been screened to contain condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins), which can undergo hydrolysis to yield cyanidin and delphinidin. These tannins combine with flavan-3-ols, mainly (+)-catechin and (+)-gallocatechin, along with lesser concentrations of (−)-epicatechin. GC-MS analysis of leaf extracts found major components to include linoleic acid (36.10% and 33.82%), vitamin E (7.15% and 5.98%), and caryophyllene (4.21% and 5.08%).
3.2 Gossypol: The Principal Bioactive Pigment
The main chemical constituent of G. herbaceum seed is gossypol, a polyphenolic compound present at 0.4–2.0% in the kernels. The presence of two aldehydic groups and six phenolic hydroxyl groups makes gossypol chemically reactive. Gossypol is a lipid-soluble polyphenol isolated from the cotton plant (genus Gossypium). Its chemical name is (2,2′-binaphthalene)-8,8′-dicarboxaldehyde, 1,1′,6,6′,7,7′-hexahydroxy-5,5′-diisopropyl-3,3′-dimethyl, and it is the most important natural pigment present in cotton.
Gossypol exists as two isomers within plants (+) and (−), which can be non-toxic and bound to plant proteins or toxic and "free" or unbound. The concentrations of the toxic free form vary widely in whole seeds and meals, with gossypol in direct solvent-extracted cottonseed meal being much more readily bioavailable than the gossypol contained in whole seeds. From roots and seeds, gossypol, 6-methoxygossypol, and 6,6′-dimethoxygossypol have been isolated, along with triterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids known to be present in leaves.
3.3 Seed Oil Constituents
The unsaponifiable fraction of Indian cottonseed oil contains sitosterol, ergosterol, lipids, gossypol, oleic, palmitic, and linoleic acids. Seeds contain pectin, and the root bark and seeds both contain gossypol.
3.4 Flavonol Profile
HPLC analysis of the crude extract of G. herbaceum indicated that it contains several different types of flavonols. High phenolic content (3,486.71 ± 0.71 mg GAE/100 g and 1,309.2 ± 0.14 mg GAE/100 g), flavonoid content (1,013.3 ± 0.28 mg RE/100 g and 700.55 ± 0.77 mg RE/100 g), and terpenoids (502.15 ± 0.02 mg/100 g and 699.35 ± 0.03 mg/100 g) in G. herbaceum leaf are likely responsible for its therapeutic ability.
4. Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Antifertility and Antispermatogenic Mechanisms
Gossypol is capable of inhibiting the fertility of male rats. On administration of gossypol, the spermatids are damaged first; with increasing dosage and duration of treatment, the spermatocytes are also damaged. In the epididymis, there are exfoliated spermatids and spermatocytes with numerous dead spermatozoa, many of which had their heads and tails separated. The sperm count gradually decreases until azoospermia. Electron microscopic examinations reveal changes in the acrosomes and mitochondrial spiral sheath. Interstitial cells of the testis appeared to be unaffected.
The mechanism of gossypol's toxicity is not well understood. Toxicity may be due to the action of gossypol on specific enzymes, or interference with amino acid, protein, or iron metabolism.
4.2 Anticancer and Pro-apoptotic Mechanisms
Pharmacological studies indicate that gossypol inhibits the Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptotic proteins, promoting apoptosis in tumor cells. The main mechanism of gossypol's anticancer activity is inducing apoptosis through suppressing anti-apoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family. This effect results from the inhibitory activity of AT-101, which acts as a mimetic agent to Bcl-2 Homology Domain 3 (BH3), downregulating Bcl-2-related proteins in human cancer cells. Gossypol may induce apoptosis via both caspase-dependent and independent pathways. The caspase-dependent anti-tumour effect of gossypol is led by activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9. Apoptosis induced by independent pathways is mediated by alterations on the mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation.
Evidence is accumulating that gossypol and its derivatives act as BH3 mimetics, killing multiple tumor cell lines, at least in part by activating the Bcl-2-regulated apoptotic pathway. Gossypol also suppresses both telomerase activity and NF-κB activity in human leukemia cells.
4.3 Uterotonic and Emmenagogue Mechanisms
The uterotonic and emmenagogue properties traditionally attributed to the root bark are associated with the plant's gossypol content and other phenolic constituents. Flowers are useful in uterine discharge, and gossypol, the phenolic compound, has been used in treating endometriosis and uterine conditions. The mechanism through which root bark preparations promote uterine contractions is analogous, in empirical terms, to the action of ergot alkaloids, though the molecular mechanism has not been fully elucidated in controlled studies.
4.4 Antioxidant Mechanisms
In antibacterial testing, significant inhibitory potentials against multidrug-resistant bacteria strains were present. In vitro antioxidant potentials (IC50) of ethanol and hexane extracts were 3.33 and 4.12 µg/mL for DPPH assays, and 3.87 and 5.00 µg/mL for nitric oxide assays, respectively. Tannins are polyphenolics known to exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory potentials.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Lactation Insufficiency (Galactagogue Use)
Traditional basis: The herb has been used traditionally from antiquity in the treatment of inadequate lactation, among other conditions.
Clinical evidence: A randomized study was done in India that compared the seed kernel of Gossypium herbaceum 10 grams per day in 3 divided doses to placebo for one month in healthy mothers to treat perceived insufficient milk supply. Entry into the study was based on maternal reports of insufficient milk supply, and only mothers were blinded to the treatment. No maternal counseling on breastfeeding was provided. The principal finding was that the volume of supplementary feedings decreased significantly from an average of 292 mL daily to 40 mL daily in the treatment group.
Animal studies have demonstrated an increase in serum prolactin after intravenous administration of an extract of Gossypium herbaceum. Some authors state that their unpublished data showed that oral administration of Gossypium seed extract to women increased their serum prolactin levels.
Gossypium is a purported galactagogue and may increase the complement C3 and C4 content of breastmilk. However, clinical trials supporting these uses are small and inadequate to validate its efficacy. An extract of Gossypium herbaceum seeds was given in a single oral dose of 20 grams containing 520 mg of pectin to 4 women who were 48 hours postpartum. Colostrum samples were obtained 120 minutes after administration. Complement C3 and C4 components of colostrum increased to a greater extent in treated women than in women who received a placebo. No increase in serum complement C3 and C4 occurred in either group. The authors proposed that pectin from Gossypium seeds stimulated secretion of complement C3 and C4 into colostrum and that this effect might increase the antibacterial activity of breastmilk.
Evidence assessment: Evidence for the galactagogue use of G. herbaceum is preliminary and derived from small, methodologically limited studies. The single-blind nature of the main clinical trial, the absence of breastfeeding counseling controls, and the very small sample size of the colostrum immunology study preclude definitive conclusions. This area requires larger, rigorously controlled trials.
5.2 Male Antifertility and Contraception
Historical background: Gossypol is a potentially toxic phenolic pigment found in the seed, stem, and root of the cotton plant, and was initially identified as an antifertility agent in China during the 1950s. Historical epidemiological reports from China described a decade-long absence of childbirths in certain regions during the 1930s–1940s, later attributed to the dietary substitution of soybean oil with crude cottonseed oil due to economic hardship.
Clinical evidence: Over 4,000 healthy men were on gossypol for more than 6 months. The antifertility efficacy evaluated by semen examination was 99.89%. Side effects were mild and of low incidence, though a few subjects were found to be hypokalemic.
The contraceptive efficacy of gossypol was investigated in a double-blind, randomized, controlled study. 75 male volunteers were placed on a regimen of 20 mg of gossypol per day, while 77 controls received a placebo. Each volunteer continued use of gossypol for at least 14.5 months. Of the 64 gossypol-treated participants who completed the study, 31% achieved azoospermia and 61% had a sperm count less than 4 × 10⁶. A 92% efficacy rate was achieved at the end of the loading phase. Efficacy rates of 87%, 97%, 95%, 92%, and 98% were achieved at the end of loading, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of maintenance, respectively. The only significant side effect appeared to be a lowering of serum potassium levels during the maintenance phase.
Following clinical trials conducted in China in the 1970s, gossypol was proposed as a drug for male contraceptive use. Extensive investigations on formal animal toxicology and on the recovery of fertility in men after stopping gossypol treatment led to the decision by the Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP) at the World Health Organization (WHO), that gossypol would not be acceptable as an antifertility drug.
Evidence assessment: While gossypol demonstrated high contraceptive efficacy in clinical trials, WHO ultimately rejected it as an antifertility drug due to concerns about irreversibility in some men, hypokalemia, and unacceptable systemic toxicity. Clinical development as a male contraceptive has not continued.
5.3 Oncology (Gossypol / AT-101 as Anticancer Agent)
Gossypol, a natural polyphenolic compound derived from the seeds, roots, and stems of cotton, was first used as a male contraceptive agent. Due to its diverse biological properties, including antifertility, antiviral, antioxidant, antibacterial, antimalarial, and most notably antitumor activities, gossypol has been the subject of numerous studies.
Gossypol is the first compound that showed inhibition of Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, and Mcl-1. Natural gossypol is a racemic mixture, and levo gossypol (AT-101, Ascenta) has been under Phase II clinical trials in CLL (in combination with rituximab) and in hormone-refractory prostate cancer (in combination with docetaxel). AT-101 exhibits submicromolar binding affinity for Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. Gastrointestinal toxicity was dose-limiting in a Phase I/II clinical trial in prostate cancer patients.
(-)-Gossypol, a natural BH3-mimetic, is a small molecule inhibitor of Bcl-2/Bcl-xL/Mcl-1 currently in Phase II clinical trials as an adjuvant therapy for human prostate cancer. Gossypol is being evaluated in Phase I and II clinical trials for use as a single agent in B-cell malignancies and prostate cancer, and in combination with other antitumor agents in a variety of hematologic, lymphoid, and solid tumor malignancies.
Results from selected pharmacological studies indicate that gossypol inhibits the Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptotic proteins, promoting apoptosis in tumor cells. Phase I and II clinical trials reveal gossypol's promise as an anticancer agent, demonstrating efficacy and manageable toxicity profiles. The development of gossypol derivatives and novel carriers has been identified as an avenue to enhance therapeutic outcomes and mitigate adverse effects. Gossypol represents a promising anticancer agent with considerable therapeutic potential.
Evidence assessment: Preclinical (in vitro and in vivo) evidence for gossypol's anticancer activity is substantial. Early-phase human clinical trials (Phase I/II) have been conducted specifically in prostate cancer and blood malignancies. However, no Phase III trials have been completed demonstrating clinical efficacy, and gastrointestinal toxicity remains a significant challenge. This is an active but early-stage area of research.
5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
Gossypium herbaceum is among the most cited species in the treatment of microbial diseases and symptoms in communities all over the world. In antibacterial testing, significant inhibitory potentials against multidrug-resistant bacteria strains have been demonstrated. Extracts and essential oil of the plant have displayed anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and anti-ulcer activity.
Evidence assessment: Antimicrobial data are predominantly in vitro or from laboratory studies. No human clinical trials on the antimicrobial use of G. herbaceum preparations have been identified. Evidence is preliminary and preclinical.
5.5 Antiplasmodial (Antimalarial) Activity
Antiplasmodial activities (IC50) were 9.99 and 9.76 µg/mL for ethanol and hexane leaf extracts, respectively. G. herbaceum leaf may provide novel plant-derived therapeutic agents effective in treating infectious diseases arising from multiple drug-resistant bacteria and may be a target in the management of oxidative stress.
Evidence assessment: Antiplasmodial activity has been demonstrated in in vitro assays only. No human clinical data exist for this application.
5.6 Antiepileptic / CNS Activity
The antiepileptic activity of chloroform extract of leaves of Gossypium herbaceum (CGH) was evaluated in mice at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg orally, using maximum electroshock (MES), pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), and isoniazid (INH)-induced convulsions. In MES and PTZ methods, CGH significantly protected mice from convulsions more potently than diazepam and phenobarbitone sodium. In the INH method, CGH slightly delayed the onset of convulsions.
Evidence assessment: Evidence is limited to preclinical animal models. No human trials exist for this application.
5.7 Broad Pharmacological Activities (Preclinical)
Pharmacological investigations have revealed that Gossypium herbaceum and related cotton species possess anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, anticancer, antidepressant, antiepileptic, memory enhancement, wound healing, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antiprotozoal, insecticidal, diuretic, gastric ulcer healing, and a wide range of effects on reproductive systems. Gossypol specifically has demonstrated significant antifertility, antiviral, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antimalarial activities.
The breadth of these activities is documented predominantly in in vitro assays and animal models, with limited to no human clinical trial data for most individual applications.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas
- Female Reproductive System: Emmenagogue, uterotonic, dysmenorrhea, expulsion of placenta, menstrual regulation, endometriosis. The plant has been used traditionally for women's menstrual cycle pains, irregular bleeding, use after birth to expel the placenta, and to increase lactation.
- Male Reproductive System: Antispermatogenic, antifertility. The oil contains gossypol, a substance that has the effect of lowering sperm production and possibly causing infertility in males.
- Lactation: Gossypium is a purported galactagogue, and it may increase the complement C3 and C4 content of breastmilk.
- Oncology: Clinical trials, particularly Phase I and II, reveal gossypol's promise as an anticancer agent, demonstrating efficacy and manageable toxicity profiles.
- Gastrointestinal System: Used traditionally for diarrhea, dysentery, and hemorrhage. In Unani medicine, leaves are useful in childhood diarrhea.
- Respiratory System: The plant is used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for bronchial asthma.
- Integumentary System (Skin): The seeds can be used medicinally particularly for scabies, herpes, and wounds.
- Metabolic / Endocrine: Anti-diabetic activity reported in preclinical studies.
- Central Nervous System: Antidepressant and antiepileptic activities noted in animal models.
- Immune System / Breastmilk: Possible immunostimulant activity on breastmilk complement components.
7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
The following dosages appear in identified research literature and are reported strictly as documented in sources:
- Gossypiol (male antifertility, clinical trial): A daily dose of 20 mg gossypol was given successively for 60 days (loading phase), causing sperms to become immotile, reduced in number or totally absent. A sperm count below 4 million/mL semen was considered to indicate infertility. The dosage in the second stage (maintenance period) was reduced to one-third of the original dose.
- Gossypol (double-blind RCT, male contraception): 75 male volunteers were placed on a regimen of 20 mg of gossypol per day for at least 14.5 months.
- Seed kernel powder (galactagogue, clinical trial): In a single-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial, the test group (n = 30) received kernel of Gossypium herbaceum 10 g (powder filled in capsules) orally in three divided doses for 1 month.
- Seed extract (colostrum immunology study): An extract of Gossypium herbaceum seeds was given in a single oral dose of 20 grams containing 520 mg of pectin to 4 women who were 48 hours postpartum, with colostrum samples obtained 120 minutes after administration.
- Chloroform leaf extract (antiepileptic, animal study): Antiepileptic activity of CGH was evaluated in mice at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg orally.
No standardized or officially approved therapeutic dosage for G. herbaceum preparations exists in recognized pharmacopeias such as the WHO monographs, European Pharmacopoeia, or USP as of the available published record.
8. Safety Considerations and Known Interactions
8.1 Gossypol Toxicity Profile
Gossypol has caused hypokalemia, mild leukopenia and thrombocytopenia, fatigue, dry mouth, dry skin, and gastrointestinal upset. Fatigue, decrease of libido, and impaired appetite were the three main complaints in clinical trials. The mechanism of hypokalemia induced by gossypol is probably of renal origin.
Gossypol can cause systemic and reproductive disease syndromes depending on the species of exposed animal and the dosage of free gossypol consumed. The toxic effects of gossypol are cumulative, and systemic disease characterized by hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary abnormalities is generally observed.
8.2 Reproductive Toxicity
Despite its therapeutic potential, gossypol poses significant toxicological risks. It has been shown to suppress lymphocyte proliferation, impair macrophage function, and disrupt immune responses. Additionally, it exerts neurotoxic and hepatotoxic effects, and its acute exposure has been associated with mortality in animal models. Of particular concern is its reproductive toxicity.
A risk assessment classified gossypol as a moderate reproductive toxicant (TRAEC risk score 4.68). Gossypol damages ovarian reserve and oocyte competence, with only partial reversibility, highlighting the need for caution in its clinical use.
The biological activity and toxic effects of (+)-gossypol and (−)-gossypol differ. The antitumor effect of (−)-GA is more potent than that of its racemate (+)-GA, but (+)-gossypol has a stronger destructive effect on DNA bonds in normal human leukocytes than (−)-gossypol.
8.3 Irreversibility of Antifertility Effect
The WHO decision that gossypol would not be acceptable as an antifertility drug was based on extensive investigations on formal animal toxicology and on the recovery of fertility in men after stopping gossypol treatment. In certain men, the antifertility effect was found to be irreversible, which was a primary concern cited by WHO's Human Reproduction Programme.
8.4 Hypokalemia
In terms of serum potassium levels, there were no statistical differences between gossypol and placebo groups at the end of the loading phase. However, through the ensuing 12 months of maintenance phase, a statistically significant trend toward reduced serum potassium level was evident. If human reaction to gossypol is similar to that of animal reaction, a diet lacking adequate levels of protein, iron, or certain minerals could adversely affect its efficacy and safety, and malnutrition could severely affect gossypol toxicity and its antifertility factors.
8.5 Indirect Dietary Exposure
Cottonseed meal, as a high-quality protein source, is widely used in livestock and poultry production in China. As a result, humans may be indirectly exposed to gossypol through the consumption of animal products—including meat, eggs, and milk—derived from animals fed with cottonseed-based feed.
8.6 Protein and Nutritional Interactions
Clinical research suggests that increasing the dietary level of quality of protein minimizes or eliminates the physiologic effects of ingested gossypol within limits. This protein-binding property of gossypol means that diets rich in quality protein may reduce gossypol's bioavailability and toxicity, while protein-deficient diets may potentiate harmful effects.
8.7 Uterotonic Risks in Pregnancy
The root bark has been used as a milder and safer alternative to ergot for inducing uterine contractions to speed difficult labour, and it can induce an abortion or the onset of a period. These uterotonic properties have been documented historically and mean that root bark preparations carry a risk of inducing abortion or premature uterine contractions in pregnant individuals. This uterotonic activity is well documented in traditional texts and historical medical records.
References
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