Kiwi | Caring Sunshine

Other Names

Actinidia chinensisActinidia chinensis f. chlorocarpaActinidia chinensis f. longipilaActinidia chinensis var. deliciosaActinidia chinensis var. hispidaActinidia deliciosaActinidia deliciosa var. chlorocarpaActinidia deliciosa var. colorisActinidia deliciosa var. longipilaActinidia latifolia var. deliciosaChinese gooseberryfox peachfuzzy kiwifruitgolden kiwigooseberry vinehulitaoIchang gooseberrykiwifruitmacaque peachmihoutaomonkey peachqiyiguosheep peachtenglivine pearWilson's gooseberryyangtao

Synopsis

Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.): A Comprehensive Reference Article

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

1.1 Botanical Names and Taxonomy

Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi), or Chinese gooseberry (traditional Chinese: 獼猴桃; simplified Chinese: 猕猴桃; pinyin: míhóutáo), is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia. Kiwifruit belongs to the family Actinidiaceae and the genus Actinidia. The genus comprises several commercially and medicinally relevant species, the most prominent of which are:

Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa (formerly classified as Actinidia deliciosa) — the green-fleshed "Hayward" cultivar, the most widely recognized commercial form.
Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis — the source of gold-fleshed cultivars (e.g., "Hort16A," "Zesy002").
Actinidia arguta — commonly called kiwiberry, a smaller, smooth-skinned relative.

The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa 'Hayward') is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg: 5–8 centimetres in length and 4.5–5.5 cm in diameter. The genus name, Actinidia, is derived from the Greek akinos, meaning "ray," and was given to describe the radial appearance of the inside of the kiwifruit.

1.2 Natural Source and Geographic Origin

Native to China, specifically the Yangtze River valley, the fruit was initially known as "míhóutáo" (猕猴桃), meaning "macaque peach." In southern China, kiwifruits are found growing wild in dangerous narrow glens along the Yangtze River, and since ancient times people of that area have known of the very delicious flavor of kiwifruit. Commercial planting of kiwifruit was started in the early 20th century when it reached New Zealand from China. China is the leading producer of kiwi globally.

1.3 Common Forms and Preparations

Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat, or used as a garnish. The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture. As a dietary supplement or functional ingredient, kiwifruit is available in several specialized forms:

Freeze-dried whole-fruit powder — including the flesh and skin, preserving actinidin enzyme activity. Kiwifruit Enzyme Active Powder is quality freeze-dried New Zealand kiwifruit flesh, containing high potency protease enzyme actinidin (EC3.4.22.14) that is known to assist in the digestion of food proteins.
Standardized extracts (e.g., Actazin® and Livaux®) — proprietary kiwifruit powders standardized for actinidin, fiber, and prebiotic components, used in capsule and powder supplement formats.
Fruit juice and concentrates — used in functional beverage applications.
Kiwi seed oil — kiwi seed oil has a high content of omega-3 fatty acids.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 China: The Origin of Traditional Use

The first identifiable description of a plant as Actinidia chinensis is from a Tang dynasty poem by Cen Shen, which describes a míhóutáo plant growing above a well in modern-day Shaanxi. The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty. There has been literature on kiwifruit since the 1400s A.D. As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for presumed purposes in folk medicine, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred.

Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who had given birth to help them recover. Apart from being a food and natural health product, the whole plant (fruits, branches and leaves, vines and roots) of A. chinensis has been used as traditional folk medicine in China.

Different parts of the plant were used for distinct purposes within this folk medical tradition:

The ripe kiwifruit, tasting sweet and sour, acts on the spleen, stomach, and kidney meridians, and has improving properties on dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and vomiting.
The branches and leaves have been used to treat arthronalgia, bleeding, empyrosis, and ulcer.
The vine has appetizing, heat-clearing, and wind-dampness dispelling effects and is used to treat indigestion, jaundice, and urolithiasis.
The root and bark of A. chinensis taste bitter and astringent, and they have various medical effects such as wind and heat dispelling, blood circulation improving, and detumescence properties, and are used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, bruises, furuncle, swelling, filariasis, hepatitis, and dysentery.

Other reported traditional uses include the treatment of urinary calculi and use as a diuretic, febrifuge, and sedative. Traditionally, Actinidia plants were used for treatment of numerous disorders, such as digestive problems, rheumatism, dyspepsia, and haemorrhoids.

2.2 Scope and Limitations of Traditional Knowledge

While not extensively documented in traditional medicine systems like Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) or Ayurveda, in TCM the míhóutáo was traditionally used to treat conditions such as indigestion, loss of appetite, and certain types of cancer. While modern research supports some of these traditional uses, the kiwifruit's primary application in traditional medicine has been relatively limited compared to other herbs and foods. Today, its health benefits are largely recognized through modern nutritional science rather than ancient practices.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Vitamins and Minerals

Kiwifruit are exceptionally high in vitamin C and contain an array of other nutrients, notably nutritionally relevant levels of dietary fibre, potassium, vitamin E and folate, as well as various bioactive components, including a wide range of antioxidants, phytonutrients and enzymes, that act to provide functional and metabolic benefits. As a genus, Actinidia is diverse in both form and composition; however, there are several notable compounds that, within the context of fruit, are the signature of Actinidia: vitamin C, actinidin, fiber, vitamin E, and for selected cultivars, the persistence of chlorophyll in the mature fruit.

Kiwifruit is an excellent source of vitamins, particularly vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate. It is also rich in other antioxidants, such as phenolics and carotenoids, including lutein, violaxanthin, and β-carotene. Furthermore, it is a significant source of potassium, containing around 6 mEq of potassium per kiwifruit. High levels of vitamin C in kiwifruit can improve iron bioavailability.

3.2 Actinidin (Actinidain)

Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin), which is commercially useful as a meat tenderiser and possibly as a digestive aid. The key to the kiwifruit's benefit lies in actinidin, a naturally potent proteolytic enzyme that enhances protein digestion. In vitro studies have shown that actinidin enhances the digestion of a number of different food proteins, such as soy, red meat, milk, gluten, and gliadin. Actinidin is a cysteine protease, classifiable under enzyme commission number EC3.4.22.14.

3.3 Dietary Fiber and Prebiotic Components

The fruit's dietary fiber is composed of about one-third soluble and two-thirds insoluble fiber, a blend that has been observed to demonstrate an exceptionally high water-retention capacity, contributing to its digestive effects. Given that alterations in the gut microbiota have been implicated in the pathogenesis of constipation and IBS, there has been considerable interest in the potential for kiwifruit to also act on the microbiome. Kiwifruit has been shown to promote the growth of beneficial microbiota for gut health, including lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, and also to influence the production and absorption of short-chain fatty acids.

3.4 Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidants

Being a significant source of phytochemicals including caffeic acid, gallic acid, syringic acid, salicylic acid, ferulic acid, and protocatechuic acid, kiwifruit contributes major flavonoid and phenolic contents. Kiwifruit contains abundant antioxidants, such as vitamin C, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic components, which are protective against cardiovascular disease (CVD). Vanillic acid, skimmetin, isoscopoletin, sitogluside, fraxetin, emodin, (+)-catechin, questin, stearic acid, and quercetin were identified in A. chinensis Planch. Flavonoid quercetin has been shown to possess angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition activity.

3.5 Serotonin and Sleep-Related Compounds

Numerous studies have revealed that kiwifruit contains many medicinally useful compounds, among which antioxidants and serotonin may be beneficial in the treatment of sleep disorders. Kiwifruit peel extracts have also been investigated in preclinical models for GABAergic activity potentially relevant to sleep.

3.6 Carotenoids

Vitamin C, choline, lutein, and zeaxanthin are antioxidants that assist in the removal of free radicals from the body and may prevent the body from various diseases and inflammations. Green kiwifruit retains chlorophyll in the mature flesh, while gold varieties are distinguished by a different carotenoid and polyphenol profile.

3.7 Triterpenoids and Antimicrobial Compounds

Isolated antimicrobial agents from kiwifruit include a novel triterpene phytoalexin (actinidic acid), as well as arjunolic acid, asiatic acid, and 23-hydroxytormentic acid. A single-chain, antifungal, thaumatin-like protein, thought to be the only defense protein present in kiwifruit, has also been identified.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Digestive Health and Constipation

Overview: The major focus of clinical studies has been the positive effects of kiwifruit on digestive health and comfort, specifically on symptoms of constipation. Kiwifruit increases bowel movement frequency, reduces straining, improves stool consistency without negative side effects, and is preferred by study participants with constipation.

Key Clinical Trials:

A foundational trial published in PubMed (PMID 21147704) examined kiwifruit in IBS with constipation (IBS-C): Fifty-four patients with IBS-C and 16 healthy adults participated in a 6-week, three-phase study, which included a baseline phase (1 week), a dietary intervention period (4 weeks), and a post-intervention phase (1 week). Forty-one IBS/C patients and all healthy adults consumed two Hayward green (Actinidia deliciosa var.) kiwifruits per day for 4 weeks. Thirteen IBS/C patients in the control group took two placebo capsules per day for 4 weeks. After the 4-week intervention, weekly defecation frequency significantly increased in the IBS-C group that consumed kiwifruit (p<0.05). Colon transit time significantly decreased (p=0.026) in the IBS-C group that consumed kiwifruit. These findings suggest that kiwifruit consumption for 4 weeks shortens colon transit time, increases defecation frequency, and improves bowel function in adults diagnosed with IBS-C.

A randomized crossover trial of gold-fleshed kiwifruit in mildly constipated adults found: Gastrointestinal discomfort was also improved compared with baseline for abdominal pain, constipation and indigestion (P < 0.05) during the kiwifruit intervention. This randomised controlled trial demonstrates that daily consumption of three gold-fleshed kiwifruit is associated with a significant increase of two complete spontaneous bowel movements (CSBM) per week and reduction in gastrointestinal discomfort in mildly constipated adults.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled 8-week trial using a proprietary kiwifruit extract in patients with IBS-C found that kiwifruit extract improves bowel habits and abdominal pain in patients with IBS-C. The predefined endpoint for the whole study population was not met, because the 30% or greater improvement of pain only occurred in patients with more pain at baseline.

A 2022 systematic scoping review of three electronic databases concluded: During clinical intervention trials using kiwifruit to improve constipation, upper gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms such as abdominal discomfort and pain, indigestion, and reflux were also alleviated.

Mechanisms: In addition to being a source of soluble and insoluble fibre, kiwifruit contains antioxidants, phytonutrients, and the enzyme actinidin. The actions of actinidin have been linked to digestive health, with studies suggesting that actinidin can enhance the digestion of meat proteins, dairy, and wheat (which have all been associated with IBS symptomatology) and also accelerate gastric emptying.

Evidence Strength: This is the best-evidenced area of kiwifruit research, supported by multiple randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews with consistent positive outcomes.

4.2 Cardiovascular Health: Platelet Aggregation and Blood Pressure

Platelet Aggregation: Consuming two or three kiwifruits per day for 28 days reduced platelet aggregation response to collagen and ADP by 18% compared with controls (P<0.05). In addition, consumption of kiwifruit lowered blood triglyceride levels by 15% compared with control (P<0.05), whereas no such effects were observed in the case of cholesterol levels. Aqueous extract of kiwifruit was also reported to inhibit both human platelet aggregation and plasma ACE activity in a dose-dependent manner. Inhibition of platelet aggregation was mediated partly by reducing thromboxane A2 synthesis.

Blood Pressure: A major randomized controlled trial investigated the effects of kiwifruits and an antioxidant-rich diet compared with a control group on blood pressure and whole-blood platelet aggregation after 8 weeks in male smokers (age 44–74 years, n=102). The kiwifruit group received 3 kiwifruits per day. In the kiwifruit group, reductions of 10 mm Hg in systolic BP and 9 mm Hg in diastolic BP were observed (P=0.019 and P=0.016, comparing change from baseline in the kiwifruit group with the control group). Additionally, a 15% reduction in platelet aggregation and an 11% reduction in angiotensin-converting enzyme activity was observed in the kiwifruit group.

A second RCT in subjects with moderately elevated blood pressure reported: Among men and women with moderately elevated BP, intake of three kiwifruits was associated with lower systolic and diastolic 24-h BP compared with one apple a day. The effect may be regulated by mechanisms other than improvement of endothelial function.

Notably, results are not universally positive: In a hypercholesterolemic, nonhypertensive group, no beneficial effects on BP or other markers of cardiovascular function were seen when consuming 2 kiwifruit a day against the background of a healthy diet. This suggests blood pressure effects may be most pronounced in populations with elevated baseline blood pressure.

Evidence Strength: Moderate. Supported by several RCTs in specific populations (smokers, mildly hypertensive adults), but effects are inconsistent across all populations studied, and the totality of evidence supports cautious interpretation.

4.3 Immune Function and Respiratory Infections

In the elderly, immunosenescence and malnourishment can contribute to increased risk and severity of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI). Gold kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis 'Hort16A') contains nutrients important for immune function and mitigation of symptoms of infection, including vitamins C and E, folate, polyphenols and carotenoids. A study aimed to evaluate whether regular consumption of gold kiwifruit reduces symptoms of URTI in older people, and to determine the effect on plasma antioxidants, and markers of oxidative stress, inflammation and immune function.

A growing body of scientific literature finds that kiwifruits are exceptionally high in bioavailable vitamin C, making them potent dietary tools for achieving optimal plasma levels of this essential antioxidant, which plays critical roles in immune function. Vitamin C from whole kiwifruit has been demonstrated to be highly bioavailable in both animal models and human trials.

Evidence Strength: Preliminary to moderate. Mechanistic data on vitamin C's immune role is well established; kiwifruit-specific RCTs in immune endpoints are fewer in number and require more replication.

4.4 Sleep Quality

A self-controlled diet study (n=24; 2 males, 22 females, aged 20–55 years) had twenty-four subjects consume 2 kiwifruits 1 hour before bedtime nightly for 4 weeks. Numerous studies have revealed that kiwifruit contains many medicinally useful compounds, among which antioxidants and serotonin may be beneficial in the treatment of sleep disorders.

A more recent randomized, single-blind crossover study examined acute sleep effects: 24 men (age 29 ± 1 years, BMI 24 ± 1 kg/m²) with poor (n=12) or good (n=12) sleep quality participated. One of three treatments was consumed with a standardized evening meal: (1) the flesh of two fresh green kiwifruit, (2) dried green kiwifruit powder (including skin; equivalent to dry matter of two fresh kiwifruit) mixed with water, or (3) a water control. Consumption of dried or fresh kiwifruit with a standard evening meal was associated with improved aspects of sleep quality and mood, possibly mediated through changes in serotonin metabolism.

The urinary melatonin metabolite 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (aMT6s) is related to subjective and objective sleep quality measures, and the urinary concentration of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) is related to mood. Relative to the control group, both fresh and dried kiwifruit groups showed an increase in the urinary concentration of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA.

A pilot RCT in Saudi female students with poor sleep found: 14 students consumed 2 kiwifruits 1 hour before bedtime for 6 weeks, and 12 students were controls. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS) were used to assess sleep quality and fatigue respectively. There was a decrease in the PSQI score (improved sleep) from baseline within both groups (intervention and control). No differences in the PSQI and fatigue scores were observed between the intervention and control groups after 6 weeks. This small pilot trial therefore failed to show a between-group difference.

Evidence Strength: Preliminary. The mechanistic hypothesis (serotonin-mediated improvement) is biologically plausible and supported by urinary biomarker data, but the evidence base from controlled trials is limited in size and design quality, and results are not uniformly significant across all studies.

4.5 Metabolic Health: Lipids and Cardiovascular Risk Factors

A systematic review and meta-analysis (Suksomboon et al., 2019) assessed the effect of kiwifruit on metabolic health in patients with cardiovascular risk factors. After 8 weeks of consumption of kiwifruit, the HDL-C concentration was significantly increased and the LDL cholesterol/HDL-C ratio and total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio were significantly decreased. Vitamin C and vitamin E also increased significantly. In addition, the lag time of LDL oxidation and malondialdehyde + 4-hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal had significantly changed at 4 and 8 weeks during the kiwifruit intervention. Regular consumption of kiwifruit might exert beneficial effects on the antioxidative status and the risk factors for CVD in hyperlipidemic subjects.

Evidence Strength: Moderate. Meta-analytic data indicate favorable changes in some lipid and antioxidant markers, although individual trials are heterogeneous in design and population.

4.6 Iron Absorption and Nutritional Status

High levels of vitamin C in kiwifruit can improve iron bioavailability. This is a well-established dietary interaction: the ascorbic acid content of kiwifruit enhances the absorption of non-haem (plant-derived) iron by reducing ferric iron to the more bioavailable ferrous form and forming soluble chelate complexes with iron in the intestinal lumen. Human studies on kiwifruit specifically in the context of iron deficiency populations are limited, and this effect is shared by any vitamin C-rich food source.

Evidence Strength: Moderate for vitamin C's role generally; kiwifruit-specific clinical evidence is limited.

4.7 Cancer: Folklore vs. Scientific Evidence

Kiwi plant roots are used in traditional Chinese medicine and contain triterpenoids that have weak inhibitory effects against growth of several human cancer cell lines in vitro. A. chinensis root extracts have attenuated proliferation and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines by inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition. A. chinensis has also prevented the proliferation and migration of gastric cancer cell lines associated with apoptosis, ferroptosis activation, and mesenchymal phenotype suppression. Further in vitro experiments demonstrated that the root of A. chinensis inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Evidence Strength: Preclinical only. All cancer-related data at this time derive from in vitro cell line studies and animal models. No clinical trial evidence supports the use of kiwifruit or its extracts as a cancer treatment in humans.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

Kiwifruit and its parts are well recognized for their medicinal and therapeutic properties against diseases associated with the cardiovascular system, diabetes, kidney problems, cancer, digestive disorders, bone, and eye problems. Based on the totality of available evidence, the principal body systems and health areas for which there is at least some human clinical research are summarized below:

Gastrointestinal / Digestive System: Best-evidenced area. Constipation relief, IBS-C symptom management, improved bowel transit time, gut microbiota modulation. Kiwifruit has been recognized for its benefits to digestive, immune, and metabolic health, with digestive health being the most studied due to its ability to promote abdominal comfort.
Cardiovascular System: Platelet aggregation reduction, blood pressure modulation (especially in hypertensive or smoking populations), improvement in HDL/LDL ratio and antioxidant markers.
Immune System: Vitamin C-mediated immune support, potential reduction in severity and duration of upper respiratory tract infections in older adults.
Sleep / Neurological: Preliminary evidence for improved sleep onset and quality, possibly mediated by serotonin metabolism changes.
Metabolic Health: Modest improvements in lipid profiles, blood glucose-related markers, and antioxidant status in cardiovascular risk populations.
Nutritional Status: Iron absorption enhancement (via vitamin C), folate contribution, vitamin E and K intake.
Eye Health: Lutein and zeaxanthin content is theoretically relevant to macular health, but kiwifruit-specific human clinical trial data on this endpoint are lacking.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported directly from the cited studies and should not be interpreted as therapeutic recommendations:

Whole fruit — digestive/IBS-C: Forty-one IBS-C patients and all healthy adults consumed two Hayward green kiwifruit per day for 4 weeks.
Whole fruit — constipation (gold variety): The study investigated whether daily consumption of three gold-fleshed kiwifruit could alleviate constipation and improve gastrointestinal discomfort in mildly constipated individuals.
Whole fruit — blood pressure in smokers: The kiwifruit group received 3 kiwifruits per day over 8 weeks.
Whole fruit — platelet aggregation: Consuming two or three kiwifruits per day for 28 days reduced platelet aggregation response to collagen and ADP by 18% compared with controls.
Whole fruit — sleep: Twenty-four subjects consumed 2 kiwifruits 1 hour before bedtime nightly for 4 weeks.
Fresh fruit — acute sleep study: The flesh of two fresh green kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. Hayward) (flesh only; approximately 200 g), or freeze-dried whole (flesh and skin), green kiwifruit (32 g, equivalent to the dry matter of two fresh green kiwifruit).
IBS-C RCT (2025): A total of 60 participants with IBS-C and FC were randomized to consume either 2 Zespri green kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa "Hayward," ~150 g per serving, ~90 kcal) or maltodextrin (calorie-matched, ~25 g per serving, ~90 kcal) per day for 4 weeks.
Standardized kiwifruit extract powder (Actazin®): Improvements in quality of life and constipation symptoms were observed in clinical studies with Actazin. In particular, 600 mg daily doses of Actazin led to significant improvements in abdominal symptoms and physical discomfort scores.

7. Safety Considerations and Drug/Allergen Interactions

7.1 Allergy: Prevalence and Allergen Proteins

Kiwifruit allergy is an emerging pathological condition in both general and pediatric populations with a wide range of symptoms linked to variable molecular patterns, justifying systemic and cross-reactions with other allergens (i.e., latex, pollen, and fruit). Kiwifruit has been subject to an increasing number of reported allergies as its worldwide popularity grows. Two to 3% of the human population display hypersensitivity to the actinidin contained in fruit, with the most common allergic reaction symptom being an oral dermatitis.

Green kiwifruit has 13 different allergens, and among these the "major allergens" are Act d 1, Act d 2, Act d 8, Act d 11, and Act d 12. Act d 1 is the major allergen present in kiwifruit. Other allergens include Act d 3, Act d 5, Act d 2, and Act d 4.

The key proteins associated with primary kiwi allergy include: Act d 1 (actinidin) — a cysteine protease unique to kiwi and one of the most clinically relevant markers for primary kiwi sensitisation; Act d 2 (thaumatin-like protein) — a heat-stable protein associated with more significant reactions; and Act d 5 (kiwellin) — another kiwi-specific protein that may be associated with clinical reactivity.

Symptoms associated with kiwifruit allergy include urticaria, abdominal pain, dyspnea, rhinitis, cyanosis, and systemic responses such as anaphylaxis. Data collected so far show severe allergic reactions to be more frequent in children compared to adults.

Importantly, because the proteins involved (Act d 1, Act d 2) are heat-stable, cooking does not reliably eliminate the risk.

7.2 Latex-Fruit Syndrome and Cross-Reactivity

Around 20% of the latex-fruit syndrome is based on the association of kiwifruit and latex allergy, which affects up to 50% of latex-allergic patients. Kiwifruit cross-reactions are well described in the adult population, especially for birch and grass pollen, avocado, banana, latex, and hazelnut. Pre-sensitization to birch pollen or grass predisposes an individual to kiwi allergy, mostly via sensitization to Act d 8, PR-10 of kiwi, and homolog of Bet v1, which is the major allergen of birch.

Allergy to kiwifruit is developed either by direct sensitization to the allergens of this fruit or by sensitization to homologous molecules of other organisms, which can cause cross-reactivity. An example of indirect sensitization to a food is pollen food allergy syndrome (PFAS), which occurs when people with pollen allergies develop an allergic reaction upon the ingestion of various foods, including kiwifruit.

Individuals allergic to A. deliciosa kiwifruit demonstrated less severe symptoms following consumption of A. chinensis kiwifruit, suggesting that allergen profiles differ between green and gold varieties.

7.3 Notable Clinical Considerations

Among healthy volunteers in a randomized crossover study, 28 days of kiwifruit consumption reduced platelet aggregation (P<0.05) and plasma triglyceride levels (P<0.05). This antiplatelet property means that individuals already taking antiplatelet drugs (e.g., aspirin, clopidogrel) or anticoagulants should be aware of potential additive effects, though dedicated drug interaction studies specifically for kiwifruit are limited.

Aqueous and 70% ethanol extracts of kiwifruit provided antioxidant and fibrinolytic effects and inhibitory activities against ACE and HMG-CoA reductase in vitro. Theoretical interactions with ACE inhibitors and statins are possible, but these have not been formally studied in humans at typical dietary consumption levels.

The only issue commonly associated with kiwifruit and its extract in controlled trials is the potential for allergic responses. Many interventional studies explicitly excluded participants with known or suspected kiwifruit allergy as a standard safety precaution.

Kiwifruit is high in oxalates. The traditional use as a diuretic and for urinary stone treatment (the fruits, stems, and roots of this vine have been used in traditional medicine for treatment for urinary stones) contrasts with the theoretical concern that high oxalate intake may be problematic in individuals prone to calcium oxalate kidney stones; however, no specific clinical trial data on this interaction were identified in the literature reviewed.

The high vitamin K content of kiwifruit is a well-recognized dietary consideration for individuals on warfarin (vitamin K antagonist anticoagulation therapy), as variable intake of vitamin K-rich foods can affect INR stability, though this applies to many leafy green and other fruits and vegetables and is not unique to kiwifruit.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Kiwi may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Kiwi may help support.

No body systems available.