Kidney beans

Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

1. Identity: Botanical Names, Classification, and Forms

The kidney bean is a variety of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris); it has such a common name owing to its resemblance to a human kidney. Kidney beans belong to the plant family Fabaceae, also known as the legume, pea, or bean family, which includes lentils, chickpeas, peas, and peanuts. Beans are legumes of the genus Phaseolus that belongs to the family Leguminosae and subfamily Papilionoideae.

Kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a globally distributed species rich in bioactive compounds with diverse health benefits. The plant is an annual that grows in two main forms: some varieties grow as short bushes about 20–60 cm tall, while others grow as climbing vines that can reach 2–3 meters with support. The plant has leaves divided into three smooth, oval leaflets. Its flowers are small and butterfly-shaped, appearing in colors such as white, pink, or purple. After flowering, long narrow pods develop that contain the well-known kidney-shaped seeds, valued for their high protein and fiber content.

1.1 Recognized Varieties

There are different classifications of kidney beans: the red kidney bean (also known as the common kidney bean, rajma in India, surkh/laal lobia in Pakistan); the light speckled kidney bean (and long-shape light speckled kidney bean); the red speckled kidney bean (and long-shape red speckled kidney bean); and the white kidney bean (also known as cannellini in Italy, the UK, and the US; lobia in India; or safaid lobia in Pakistan). Kidney beans come in a variety of colors and patterns, including white, cream, black, red, purple, spotted, striped, and mottled.

1.2 Common Forms and Preparations

Kidney beans are commercially available and consumed in several forms. Archaeological evidence points to their cultivation as early as 7,600 years ago in Mexico and Peru. As a food today, they are sold dried, canned, and as standardized extracts. Canned kidney beans are pre-cooked and ready to use, offering a convenient option. The proprietary supplement extract Phase 2, also marketed under the brand names Glucosanol, Glycolite, PhaseLite and Starchlite, consists of Phaseolus vulgaris extract and Gum Arabic. In supplement contexts, kidney bean extract is typically standardized by its alpha-amylase inhibitory activity. Additionally, identified bioactive compounds can be divided into six categories, namely flavonoids, phenolic acids, saponins, alkaloids, polysaccharides, and others (e.g., terpenoids, stilbene glycosides, coumarins).

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Origins in the Americas

Kidney beans originated in Central and South America and were cultivated there thousands of years ago. Red kidney beans are widely considered to have originated in Peru circa 8000 B.C. and, along with other common beans like green beans and black beans, were spread by migrating tribes for millennia, eventually finding their way into the diets of Native Americans. Domesticated initially in the Andean highlands, both the Mesoamerican and Andean varieties contributed to this diffusion, with informal introductions predating formal records.

2.2 The Columbian Exchange and Global Spread

The arrival of Europeans in the Americas in the late 15th century marked a significant turning point in the history of kidney beans. During the Columbian Exchange, an extensive period of global exchange of crops, animals, and culture, kidney beans were introduced to Europe and other parts of the world. Spanish and Portuguese explorers brought these beans back to Europe, where they quickly gained popularity due to their nutritional value and versatility in cooking.

In Asia, the crop reached India via Portuguese and later French traders in the 16th and 17th centuries, evolving into the staple dish rajma by the 18th century, particularly in northern regions where it paired with rice for widespread consumption. In Africa, kidney beans became integrated into traditional cuisines, especially in East Africa, where they are used in dishes like "Githeri" (a Kenyan bean and corn stew).

2.3 Traditional Culinary and Medicinal Preparations

In many cultures, kidney beans are more than just food; they are a symbol of abundance and prosperity. From the hearty red beans and rice of New Orleans to the comforting rajma of North India, these beans have found their way into the heart of traditional cuisines, each preparation method telling a story of the land and its people.

Chinese cooks incorporated kidney beans into sweet dessert soups and savory stir-fries. In Japan, they found a place in wagashi, traditional sweet confections. Across Southeast Asia, kidney beans added substance to coconut milk-based curries and appeared in sweet treats like the Filipino halo-halo.

In the Levant, a common dish consisting of kidney bean stew usually served with rice is known as fasoulia. To make bean paste, kidney beans are generally prepared from dried beans and boiled until soft, at which point the dark red beans are pulverized into a dry paste.

In traditional healthcare, kidney beans are valued as a nourishing and strengthening food. In Ayurveda, they are described as sweet in taste and cooling in nature.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Macronutrient Profile

Kidney beans, cooked by boiling, are 67% water, 23% carbohydrates, 9% protein, and contain negligible fat. In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), cooked kidney beans provide 127 calories of food energy, and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of protein, folate and copper, with moderate amounts of thiamine and several dietary minerals (10–16% DV).

Carbohydrates represent the predominant macronutrient in white kidney beans, constituting 45–60% of dry weight. Starch is the primary carbohydrate, comprising 70.9–83.1% of the total, with a high proportion of resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS). This composition suggests that an extensive portion of the starch is not directly broken down in the digestive tract, which may help with weight loss and regulate blood sugar levels after consumption.

White kidney bean contains minimal fat, ranging from 1% to 2.8%. The majority comprises polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly linolenic and α-linolenic acids.

3.2 Micronutrients

Kidney beans are a good source of several vitamins and minerals, such as molybdenum, folate, iron, copper, manganese, potassium, and vitamin K1. The average amounts recorded for kidney beans are approximately 8.2 mg iron, 407 mg phosphorus, and 143 mg calcium per 100 g of dry weight, with substantial potassium and magnesium content. These minerals play an important role in various physiological activities, including bone health (phosphorus and calcium), oxygen transport (iron), and potassium and magnesium for muscle function and the nervous system, as well as zinc for immune support.

A 100-gram serving of cooked kidney beans provides approximately 127 calories, 8.7 grams of protein, 6.4 grams of fiber, and significant amounts of folate (33% of the daily value), iron (12% of the daily value), and manganese (22% of the daily value).

3.3 Bioactive Phytochemicals

The most important bioactive compound groups in kidney beans include phenolic compounds, flavonoids and pigments, resistant starch, fermentable fibres, alpha-amylase inhibitors, lectins, protease inhibitors, phytic acid, tannins, saponins, and bioactive proteins.

Beans contain a wide range of phytochemical and antioxidant compounds, including flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids, and isoflavones, which are compounds regulating the expression of genes responsible for the processes of β-fat oxidation, lithogenesis, and hepatic gluconeogenesis. Dark-colored kidney beans contain higher levels of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, which help protect cells from oxidative stress. These include natural pigments and antioxidants such as quercetin and catechin.

Kidney bean starch demonstrates high resistance to digestion, with resistant starch comprising 70.90–83.12% of total starch. Phenolics in kidney beans also possess the potential to inhibit α-amylase activity; it has been proposed that phenolics bind to α-amylase through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds or hydrophobic interactions to form polyphenol-protein aggregates, leading to denaturation or inactivation of α-amylase.

3.4 Antinutritional Factors

Kidney beans contain a group of compounds described as "non-nutritional factors" that can have both adverse and potentially beneficial effects depending on their concentration and the degree of food processing applied. These non-nutritional factors include lectins, which bind carbohydrate residues and can cause allergic reactions; trypsin inhibitors, which bind proteases and inhibit the activity of related proteases, thereby affecting the digestion of starch and protein; and phytates and tannins, which bind minerals and proteins to affect their bioavailability and digestibility, respectively.

The phytochemicals in beans comprise bioactive substances such as phenolic compounds, phytosterols, and oligosaccharides. These bioactive substances exhibit health and therapeutic benefits including antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory potential.

Phytic acid, protease inhibitors, and starch blockers are all completely or partially inactivated when beans are properly soaked and cooked. Insoluble fibers called alpha-galactosides are responsible for gas-producing effects and belong to a group of fibers known as FODMAPs, which may exacerbate the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Alpha-Amylase Inhibition

There is a growing body of research into products that slow the absorption of carbohydrates through the inhibition of enzymes responsible for their digestion. These products include alpha-amylase and glucosidase inhibitors. The common white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) produces an alpha-amylase inhibitor, which has been characterized and tested in numerous clinical studies.

Phase 2® is a dietary supplement derived from the common white kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Phase 2 has been shown to inhibit alpha-amylase, the complex carbohydrate digesting enzyme, in vitro. The inhibition of alpha-amylase may result in the lowering of the effective Glycemic Index (GI) of certain foods.

A proprietary manufacturing process of Phase 2 results in increased stability in acidic conditions of the stomach and duodenum. In vitro, Phase 2 maintains its alpha-amylase inhibitory activity after being exposed to acidic conditions mimicking those of the gastrointestinal tract compared to generic extracts.

4.2 Dietary Fiber and Resistant Starch: Gut and Metabolic Effects

The resistant starch content in kidney beans manifests an extremely negative correlation with glycemic index (r = 0.974, p < 0.01), suggesting that resistant starch makes a dominant contribution to the low GI in kidney beans; this is due to the RS compositions—insoluble and soluble dietary fiber, and non-digestible oligosaccharides—which cannot be digested in the small intestine. These ingredients confer kidney beans with excellent glucose-lowering potential.

Resistant starch is a dietary fibre that alters the gut microbial consortium, leading to an increase in the microbial production of short-chain fatty acids. Evidence from animal and human studies indicates that short-chain fatty acids are able to attenuate inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways.

4.3 Lipid Regulation

Regular intake of Phaseolus vulgaris containing soluble fibers and resistant starch has been reported to decrease the body's glycemic index, reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL), increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, and positively influence risk factors for metabolic syndrome, thereby potentially reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and diabetes.

4.4 Appetite and Satiety Modulation

Functional foods, especially white kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), show a promising avenue for metabolic intervention. This is due to mechanistic roles including suppression of starch digestion, attenuation of postprandial glycemia, modulation of appetite and satiety, and hypolipidemic effects.

5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area

5.1 Weight Management and Obesity

The most clinically studied aspect of kidney bean extract (specifically white kidney bean extract, WKBE) concerns its alpha-amylase inhibitory activity and its potential for weight management.

12-week RCT (2024): In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 81 participants with overweight and moderate obesity were assigned to either a high dose of Phase 2 white kidney bean extract (1000 mg, WKBE HIGH), a low dose (700 mg, WKBE LOW), or a matching placebo three times a day, 30 minutes before meals, for 12 weeks during a calorie-restricted diet. In a dose-dependent manner, Phase 2 significantly reduced body weight, fat mass, BMI, and waist, hip, and (in the WKBE HIGH group) thigh circumference. Phase 2 was described as an effective and safe supplement aiding weight and fat loss.

35-day RCT (2020): A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted on obese volunteers. The volunteers were divided into two groups, homogeneous for age, gender, and body weight. Phaseolus vulgaris extract or placebo was given 2,400 mg per day before each daily meal for 35 consecutive days. The average amount of weight lost by the Phaseolus vulgaris extract group was 2.24 kg (average of 0.448 kg per week), compared with 0.29 kg weight loss (average of 0.058 kg per week) in the placebo group after 35 days. The differences between groups were significant (p < .01). The BMI decreased by an average of 0.79, and body fat decreased by 1.53% on average compared to baseline (p < .05). The thickness of subcutaneous fat was significantly reduced at all four measurement points, and the decreases in waist circumference and hip circumference were significant as well. No adverse or side effects were observed during the trial period.

Review of multiple clinical studies: A specific and proprietary product named Phase 2® Carb Controller has demonstrated the ability to cause weight loss with doses of 500 to 3000 mg per day, in either a single dose or in divided doses, across multiple clinical studies. Clinical studies also show that Phase 2 has the ability to reduce the post-prandial spike in blood glucose levels. Experiments conducted incorporating Phase 2 into food and beverage products have found that it can be integrated into various products without losing activity or altering the appearance, texture, or taste of the food.

Evidence quality: Clinical and preclinical evidence supports the potential of white kidney bean as a nutraceutical for metabolic health, demonstrating consistent reductions in body fat mass, glycemic excursion, and overall weight. Nevertheless, significant limitations persist, including heterogeneity in trial designs, absence of dose standardization, and inadequate long-term safety data. Additionally, several of the positive studies were industry-funded: both key studies on white kidney bean extract for weight loss and GI reduction were industry-funded, with Pharmachem Laboratories—the manufacturer and seller of Phase 2—paying for the research, raising potential concerns about financial conflicts of interest. The overall evidence must therefore be interpreted with caution.

5.2 Glycemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes

The glycemic index (GI) range of kidney beans has been recorded as low as 32. Accumulating evidence has shown that diets with a low glycemic index are efficient strategies to reduce the complications associated with type 2 diabetes.

GI reduction study (2009): An open-label, 6-arm crossover study was conducted with 13 randomized subjects. Standardized GI testing was performed on white bread with and without the addition of Phase 2 in capsule and powder form, each in dosages of 1500 mg, 2000 mg, and 3000 mg. The 515 mg Phase 2 group showed significantly lower blood glucose at 10, 20 (p < 0.01) and at 30 minutes (p < 0.05) compared with placebo. The blood glucose area under the curve was lower in the 750 mg group compared with the two other groups, but did not reach statistical significance (p < 0.1). These data from preliminary single-meal studies suggest that alpha-amylase inhibitors might be effective in decreasing the absorption of glucose from a carbohydrate-containing meal or might increase the time period over which a single load of carbohydrates is digested.

RCT evidence on dietary fiber: Meta-analyses of RCTs on legumes suggested a protective effect on total cholesterol (mean difference −0.22 mmol/L), LDL-cholesterol (−0.19 mmol/L), fasting glucose (−0.19 mmol/L), and HOMA-IR (−0.30), although heterogeneity was high (I² = 52% for LDL-cholesterol, >75% for other outcomes).

Evidence quality: Clinical evidence demonstrates modest improvements in glycemic and inflammatory parameters, though outcomes vary according to fiber type, dose, and baseline microbiota composition. Evidence for whole kidney beans reducing glycemic markers is largely observational or based on short-term RCTs with high heterogeneity; the mechanistic evidence from in vitro and animal studies is stronger than the clinical evidence in humans.

5.3 Cardiovascular Health and Lipid Profile

Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis (2022): 22,831 articles were screened, resulting in 26 eligible observational studies (21 prospective cohort and 5 case-control studies). When comparing extreme categories of intake, the consumption of legumes was inversely associated with CVD (RR = 0.94; 95% CI: 0.89, 0.99) and CHD (RR = 0.90; 95% CI: 0.85, 0.96), but not with stroke (RR = 1.00; 95% CI: 0.93, 1.08). Evidence for an inverse dose-response association with CHD was found, increasing in magnitude up to an intake of 400 g/week, after which the benefit appears to level off.

Randomized crossover bean study (2021): A multicenter, randomized, crossover study examined the effects of a daily rotation of black, navy, pinto, dark red kidney, and white kidney beans in 1-cup (180 g) and ½-cup (90 g) daily amounts compared with a 1-cup white rice control on serum lipid and glycemic biomarkers in adults (n = 73, mean age 48.1 years, fasting serum LDL cholesterol 3.0–5.0 mmol/L) who consumed each treatment for 4-week periods separated by ≥4-week washouts. Consumption of 1 cup (180 g) of canned beans of multiple varieties decreased total and LDL cholesterol in adults with elevated LDL cholesterol, supporting a practical strategy for cardiovascular disease risk reduction.

Mechanism: The health-beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system have often been associated with the abundance of dietary fiber and (poly)phenols in the beans. Consuming colored beans like black and red kidney beans with comparatively higher (poly)phenols resulted in better vasorelaxation and lower LDL cholesterol than pinto and navy beans.

Evidence quality: The overall certainty of the evidence was graded as "low" for CVD incidence and "very low" for all other outcomes such as CHD, hypertension, and obesity in umbrella review analyses. Current evidence shows that dietary pulses with or without other legumes are associated with reduced CVD incidence with low certainty. Major cardiology societies including the American Heart Association, Canadian Cardiovascular Society, and European Society for Cardiology encourage dietary patterns that emphasize intake of legumes for lowering LDL cholesterol and blood pressure. The broader evidentiary base, while supportive, is primarily observational, and the specific contribution of kidney beans versus other legumes is difficult to isolate.

5.4 Gut Microbiome and Digestive Health

Adequate dietary fiber consumption is associated with several health benefits, including reduced risk of obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes (T2D), CVD, colon cancer, and constipation. Dietary fibers and prebiotics selectively modulate gut microbiota composition and function and may offer metabolic benefits. Dietary fibers and prebiotics enhance SCFA production, support gut barrier integrity, and modulate inflammatory and metabolic pathways.

Kidney beans also contain a variety of non-starch polysaccharides, including mannose, galactose, arabinose, and galacturonic acid, which serve as substrates for fermentation by gut bacteria. Isoflavones and related phenolic compounds in beans regulate the expression of genes responsible for β-fat oxidation, lithogenesis, and hepatic gluconeogenesis.

Evidence quality: Evidence connecting kidney bean consumption specifically to beneficial gut microbiome changes in humans is largely indirect and preliminary, extrapolated from research on dietary fiber and resistant starch more broadly. Future research should prioritize large-scale, long-term RCTs that explore the sustained impact of specific types of dietary fiber such as resistant starch on diverse populations. The role of fiber in modulating gut microbiota and its precise mechanistic pathways remain incompletely understood, requiring more advanced microbiome analyses and metabolomic studies.

5.5 Protein Nutrition and Plant-Based Diets

Proximate composition studies reveal that kidney beans contain approximately 20.09% crude protein. Pulses serve as an excellent source of essential nutrients, comprising approximately 21–25% crude protein, 60–65% carbohydrates, and key micronutrients including magnesium, iron, potassium, and B vitamins. The seeds are rich in plant protein, especially globulins, along with complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber. Kidney beans are particularly important as a plant-based protein source in populations where animal protein intake is limited.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Metabolic/Endocrine system: Glycemic regulation via alpha-amylase inhibition, resistant starch, and fiber-mediated slowing of carbohydrate absorption; modulation of postprandial blood glucose and insulin response.
• Cardiovascular system: Beans contain high levels of dietary fiber and (poly)phenols (flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins), which are pivotal in promoting cardiovascular health. Associations include reduction of LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol, and inverse association with coronary heart disease risk at intakes up to approximately 400 g/week.
• Gastrointestinal tract: Fermentable fibers and resistant starch serve as prebiotics, promoting short-chain fatty acid production and supporting gut barrier integrity.
• Body weight regulation: White kidney bean contributes to weight regulation through suppression of starch digestion, attenuation of postprandial glycemia, modulation of appetite and satiety, and hypolipidemic effects.
• Hematological system: Iron is present in kidney beans but may be poorly absorbed due to their phytate content. Folate supports red blood cell synthesis.
• Musculoskeletal and neurological systems: Potassium and magnesium support muscle function and the nervous system; phosphorus and calcium contribute to bone health.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are those reported in clinical studies only:

• Weight loss and glycemic control (general range): A specific proprietary product (Phase 2® Carb Controller) has demonstrated the ability to cause weight loss with doses of 500 to 3000 mg per day, in either a single dose or in divided doses.
• 35-day obesity RCT: Phaseolus vulgaris extract or placebo was given 2,400 mg per day before each daily meal for 35 consecutive days.
• 12-week weight management RCT: 81 participants ingested either a high dose of Phase 2 (1000 mg, WKBE HIGH), a low dose (700 mg, WKBE LOW), or a matching placebo (microcrystalline cellulose) three times a day, 30 minutes before meals, for 12 weeks during a calorie-restricted diet.
• GI reduction crossover study: Standardized GI testing was performed on white bread with Phase 2 in capsule and powder form, each in dosages of 1500 mg, 2000 mg, and 3000 mg.
• Lipid-lowering RCT: Participants consumed 1-cup (180 g) and ½-cup (90 g) daily amounts of a rotation of bean varieties (including dark red kidney and white kidney beans) for 4-week treatment periods.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) Toxicity from Raw or Undercooked Beans

This is the most clinically significant safety consideration specific to kidney beans. Red kidney beans contain high levels of the lectin phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Ingestion of raw or insufficiently cooked beans can cause acute toxicity, with symptoms typically arising 1–3 hours after consumption. While most cases produce transient nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, severe outcomes including hypovolemic shock and acute kidney injury (AKI) are rare.

Phytohemagglutinin is found in many types of beans, but red kidney beans contain more lectins than other species, typically three times the level found in white beans and ten times that found in broad beans. The toxin content of raw kidney beans is measured at 20,000–70,000 hemagglutinating units (hau). Cooking reduces the hemagglutinin activity levels to 200–400 hau.

Symptoms can be induced from as few as four to five raw beans. Symptoms usually begin with extreme nausea and vomiting within one to three hours of ingestion, followed by diarrhea. Abdominal pain has been reported in some people. Recovery is usually spontaneous and rapid, occurring within three to four hours after onset of symptoms, although some cases have required hospitalization.

Preparation to eliminate PHA: To destroy the phytohaemagglutinin toxin, beans should be soaked and boiled thoroughly in fresh water (e.g., soaked for at least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously for at least 10 minutes). The use of slow cookers or other procedures operating at a relatively low temperature may not destroy the glycoprotein lectin; and warming at insufficient temperatures might even increase the toxicity of these foods.

8.2 Antinutritional Effects on Mineral and Protein Absorption

Phytates and tannins bind proteins and minerals, thereby reducing their bioavailability and digestibility. Digestion of protein and starch is impacted by trypsin inhibitors, which bind proteases and diminish their activity. Lectins trigger allergic responses by binding to carbohydrate moieties. Phytic acid (phytate) impairs absorption of minerals such as iron and zinc. Proper soaking and cooking substantially reduces these effects.

8.3 Gastrointestinal Effects

Insoluble fibers called alpha-galactosides belong to a group of fibers known as FODMAPs, which may exacerbate the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Flatulence and bloating are well-recognized adverse effects of bean consumption attributable to these fermentable oligosaccharides.

8.4 Allergenic Potential

Kidney bean toxicity may be divided into two subcategories: toxicity caused by its lectins, saponins, phytates, and protease inhibitors, or allergenicity induced by its allergenic proteins. Kidney beans have documented allergenic proteins capable of causing IgE-mediated allergic reactions in sensitized individuals.

8.5 Considerations for Individuals with Chronic Kidney Disease

Kidney beans are high in potassium and phosphorus, two nutrients that many individuals on dialysis or those living with chronic kidney disease (CKD) may need to limit. A typical serving of legumes is ½ cup cooked. While this provides up to 9 grams of protein, it can also contribute as much potassium as a banana—around 422 mg. It is therefore important that individuals with CKD or on dialysis are aware of this when determining how often and in what portion to include beans.

Since beans are a plant-based food, the phosphorus and potassium from beans are not absorbed as well as the phosphorus and potassium from animal sources or phosphate and potassium additives. If an individual has a history of calcium oxalate stones, the need to limit oxalates may be relevant, as many beans are high in oxalates.

8.6 Interactions and Drug Considerations

Trypsin inhibitors (also known as protease inhibitors) in kidney beans inhibit the function of various digestive enzymes, impairing protein digestion. Individuals on anticoagulant therapy should be aware that vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) is present in kidney beans and is important for blood coagulation; consistent dietary intake is generally more important than avoidance. No specific drug-supplement interaction data unique to kidney bean extract supplements was identified in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed here.

References

• Wang et al. (2025). Therapeutic Potential of White Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) for Weight Management. PMC / MDPI Foods.
• Yan & Wang (2026). Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): Composition, Health Benefits, and Health-Oriented Processing Strategies. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety.
• Barrett & Udani (2011). A proprietary alpha-amylase inhibitor from white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris): A review of clinical studies on weight loss and glycemic control. Nutrition Journal.
• Proprietary alpha-amylase inhibitor formulation from white kidney bean promotes weight and fat loss: a 12-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. PMC / NIH (2024).
• Wang S. et al. (2020). Regular intake of white kidney beans extract (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) induces weight loss compared to placebo in obese human subjects. Food Science & Nutrition / PMC.
• Udani JK et al. (2009). Lowering the glycemic index of white bread using a white bean extract. Nutrition Journal / PMC.
• It's No Has Bean: A Review of the Effects of White Kidney Bean Extract on Body Composition and Metabolic Health. PMC (2020).
• Godos J. et al. (2022). Intake of legumes and cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases.
• Legume consumption in adults and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PMC / NIH (2023).
• Canned Beans Decrease Serum Total and LDL Cholesterol in Adults with Elevated LDL Cholesterol in a 4-wk Multicenter, Randomized, Crossover Study. PubMed (2021).
• Associations between Dietary Pulses Alone or with Other Legumes and Cardiometabolic Disease Outcomes: An Umbrella Review and Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PMC / NIH (2019).
• The Non-Nutritional Factor Types, Mechanisms of Action and Passivation Methods in Food Processing of Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): A Systematic Review. PMC (2023).
• Clinical complications of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) consumption. PubMed (2013).
• Phytohaemagglutinin – ScienceDirect Topics Overview.
• Severe red kidney beans toxicity in an 8-year-old girl: a rare case of hypovolemic shock and prerenal acute kidney injury. PMC (2025).
• Phytohaemagglutinin – Wikipedia.
• Functional components profile and glycemic index of kidney beans. Frontiers in Nutrition / PMC (2022).
• Influence of Processing Methods on Phytochemical Composition of Different Varieties of Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Food Reviews International (2023).
• Resistant Starch as a Dietary Intervention to Limit the Progression of Diabetic Kidney Disease. PMC (2022).
• Phytohaemagglutinin Poisoning. Centre for Food Safety, Hong Kong.
• Kidney bean – Wikipedia.
• Red Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): A Plant Food Abounding with Nutrition. ResearchGate (2012).
• Beans – National Kidney Foundation.
• Impact of chronic ingestion of white kidney beans on small-intestinal disaccharidase activity in Wistar rats. PMC (2017).