IngredientsJojoba oil is the liquid produced in the seed of the jojoba plant (Simmondsia chinensis), a shrub native to southern Arizona, southern California, and northwestern Mexico. The word jojoba, pronounced "ho-ho-ba," is a distortion of the native Papago Indian word "howhowi." Jojoba is also known by many other names such as bucknut, coffee nut, goatnut, pignut, nutpush, goatberry, sheepnut, and lemon leaf.
The Sonoran Desert is the native home to one of the oldest cultivated species in North America, the jojoba plant. This slow-growing shrub species sends its roots up to 35 feet deep and can live to be more than a century old. Plantations of jojoba have been established in a number of desert and semi-desert areas, predominantly in Argentina, Australia, Israel, Mexico, Peru, and the United States.
The oil makes up approximately 50% of the jojoba seed by weight. The terms "jojoba oil" and "jojoba wax" are often used interchangeably because the wax visually appears to be a mobile oil, but as a wax it is composed almost entirely (~97%) of mono-esters of long-chain fatty acids (wax esters) and alcohols, accompanied by only a tiny fraction of triglyceride esters. This composition accounts for its extreme shelf-life stability and extraordinary resistance to high temperatures, compared with true vegetable oils.
The resultant demand for green energy amidst fossil fuel shortages has rekindled interest in jojoba oil (Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider). Jojoba oil is the only unsaturated liquid wax readily extractable in large quantities from plant sources (approximately 52% of the total seed weight), which shows high structural similarity with sperm whale oil.
In cosmetic ingredient nomenclature, jojoba vegetable oil is known by its INCI name "Simmondsia Chinensis seed oil" and is extracted from the oil-rich seeds of the jojoba plant, traditionally grown in Central America.
Jojoba is commercially available in several distinct forms:
Jojoba oil is used in cosmetic products at concentrations ranging from ≥0.1% to 25.0%.
The O'odham Native American tribe extracted the oil from jojoba seeds to treat sores and wounds. The name "jojoba" originated from the O'odham Hohowi (an indigenous Uto-Aztecan people), who are credited with the name. The O'odham people, from the Sonoran Desert in the southwest United States, treated burns with an antioxidant salve made from the paste of the jojoba nut. Mark Nesbitt, the author of The Cultural History of Plants, cited the first written mention of the tree as coming from the early 1700s by a Jesuit priest exploring the Sonoran desert.
During the early 18th century, Jesuit missionaries on the Baja California Peninsula observed indigenous peoples heating jojoba seeds to soften them, and then using a mortar and pestle to create a salve or buttery substance. The latter was applied to the skin and hair to heal and condition. Native Americans also used the salve to soften and preserve animal hides. Pregnant women ate jojoba seeds, believing they assisted during childbirth. Hunters and raiders consumed jojoba on the trail to suppress hunger.
In the 1700s, Father Junipero Serra, the founder of 21 California missions, noted in his diary that the Native Americans were using the oil and seeds for many different purposes: for treating sores, cuts, bruises, and burns; as a diet supplement and as an appetite suppressant when food was not available; as a skin conditioner, for soothing windburn and sunburn; as a cooking oil; as a hair or scalp treatment and hair restorative; and as a coffee-like beverage by roasting the seeds.
Native American cultures of the southwestern deserts utilized jojoba oil to treat skin conditions as well as cosmetically rubbing it on their hair and bodies as a protectant.
Jojoba joined the industrial world during World War II as a substitute for dwindling supplies of other oil resources. It was used as an important substitute and additive for motor, transmission, and gear oil; even machine guns were lubricated with jojoba oil.
The ban on importing whale oil to the U.S. in 1971 led to the discovery that jojoba oil is "in many regards superior to sperm whale oil for applications in the cosmetics and other industries." The collection and processing of the seed from naturally occurring stands marked the beginning of jojoba domestication in the early 1970s.
Pure waxes, including wax esters, alcohols, a few free fatty acids, and hydrocarbons, represent approximately 98% of the total chemical composition of jojoba oil, as well as vitamins, sterols, and a few triglyceride esters. Based on this, jojoba oil is widely known as a liquid wax rather than as a fat or oil.
Jojoba oil is considered among the top-ranked oils due to its wax, which constitutes about 98% (mainly wax esters, few free fatty acids, alcohols, and hydrocarbons). In addition, sterols and vitamins with few triglyceride esters, flavonoids, phenolic, and cyanogenic compounds are also present.
Jojoba oil stands out with its long-chain monoesters, which range from C36 to C46 in length. These esters emerge when long straight-chain fatty acids mix with long-chain monohydric alcohols. Both components usually have cis-monounsaturation at the ω-9 position. The main components are dodecenyl eicosenoate, eicosenyl eicosenoate, and eicosyl docosanoate. This molecular structure explains why it remains liquid at room temperature despite being a wax chemically.
The fatty acid content of jojoba oil can vary significantly depending on the soil and climate in which the plant is grown, as well as when it is harvested and how the oil is processed. In general, it contains a high proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids, primarily 11-eicosenoic acid (gadoleic acid).
Gadoleic acid (C20:1), also known as gondoic acid, is an unsaturated omega-9 fatty acid. It represents the main fatty acid in the oil of jojoba seeds, exhibiting the highest percentage value, ranging from 67.85% to 75.50% compared to other fatty acids. It is similar to human sebum, which accounts for high absorption in the human skin and can therefore moisturize the skin without a greasy effect. The high content of gadoleic acid in the oils enhances their applicability in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
Additional fatty acids identified include: erucic acid (12.60–14.81%) and oleic acid (7.86–10.99%). The fatty acid profile also encompasses eicosenoic acid (C20:1), erucic acid (C22:1), and oleic acid (C18:1), which give the wax its smooth texture and moisturizing properties. Fatty alcohols include docosanol, eicosanol, and tetracosanol, known for their ability to enhance moisture retention and absorption.
Sterols and tocopherols (Vitamin E) are naturally present antioxidants that contribute to its shelf life and skin-conditioning benefits. The wax's chemical composition includes C16–C24 fatty acids and fatty alcohols, resembling the human skin's natural sebum, which consists of 2%–30% wax esters. It also contains tocopherols, as well as high levels of phytosterols.
Beyond the wax fraction, sterols and vitamins with few triglyceride esters, flavonoids, phenolic, and cyanogenic compounds are also present.
The oil obtained by cold pressing is rich in waxy esters, which is why it is called a vegetable "wax." Its chemical composition is similar to that of human sebum, which is why it has a lipid-replenishing effect. It is made of fatty acids as well as esters composed entirely of straight-chain alcohols. Both the acid and alcohol portions of jojoba oil have 20 or 22 carbon atoms, and each has one unsaturated bond.
One of the unusual attributes of jojoba oil is that it does not oxidize or become rancid. Cosmetic formulations containing jojoba oil have superior stability toward oxidation than other lipids used for this purpose. A comparative study of the relative oxidation stability of jojoba oil, sperm whale oil, carnauba wax esters, Limnanthes douglasii wax esters, and behenyl arachidate revealed that jojoba oil has high oxidative stability compared with all others tested.
Jojoba seeds and oil have a long history of use in folklore to treat various ailments, such as skin and scalp disorders, superficial wounds, sore throat, obesity, and cancer; for improvement of liver functions, enhancement of immunity, and promotion of hair growth. Extensive studies on jojoba oil have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological applications, including antioxidant, anti-acne and antipsoriasis, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antipyretic, analgesic, antimicrobial, and anti-hyperglycemia activities. In addition, jojoba oil is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry, especially in cosmetics for topical, transdermal, and parenteral preparations.
Jojoba seed oil has been documented to be used in treating throat inflammation and wounds. Jojoba oil is reported to have anti-inflammatory activity, as well as antimicrobial and antifungal/insecticidal properties.
In modern research, jojoba wax has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory and wound-healing bioactivities. Additionally, it has been shown that jojoba wax may form an efficient barrier that protects the skin surface, retaining moisture in the skin, as determined by transepidermal water loss evaluation. Jojoba wax does not easily penetrate the skin, and its activity is mainly manifested in the skin's uppermost layers.
Jojoba extracts and latex showed antimicrobial activity against bacterial and fungal species including Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhimurium, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus flavus, and Candida albicans. The antimicrobial activity of jojoba oil is not surprising as it has been illustrated to show a striking chemical similarity to sperm whale oil.
However, evidence is not uniformly positive: researchers reported that jojoba oil failed to show any antibacterial activity against MRSA, Bacillus subtilis B29, Pseudomonas aeruginosa 60690, or Salmonella choleraesuis.
The antifungal properties of simmondsin and simmondsin 2′-ferulate, compounds found in jojoba, have been evaluated. The study revealed that simmondsin showed higher inhibition than simmondsin 2′-ferulate against all the test fungi. Simmondsin was found to inhibit Botrytis fabae the most and was less sensitive in inhibiting Fusarium oxysporum.
Jojoba leaves contain antioxidant flavonoids, which have been studied for their potential in treating asthma, inflammation, and cancer. The tocopherol (Vitamin E) and phytosterol fraction of jojoba oil contributes to its documented antioxidant capacity. Modern research underscores jojoba oil's pharmacological versatility, demonstrating antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-acne, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antibacterial properties.
It has been shown that jojoba wax may form an efficient barrier that protects the skin surface, retaining moisture in the skin, as determined by transepidermal water loss evaluation. Jojoba oil differs from true oils in that it is a liquid wax ester composed mainly of esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols, and its structural similarity to skin sebum is considered central to its absorptive properties and emollient mechanism. Its similarity to human sebum allows for high absorption in the human skin, enabling moisturization without a greasy effect.
A 2018 study investigated the antioxidant properties of simmondsin, a pure molecule present in jojoba seeds, and of the aqueous extract of jojoba seeds on fructose-induced oxidative stress in RINm5f beta cells. The results showed a beneficial effect of jojoba seed extracts on hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress. However, additional studies on the effect of S. chinensis seeds on the prevention of diabetes and its complications are necessary. This work is preliminary and cell-based only; no human clinical data on antidiabetic effects were identified.
Evidence level: Moderate (limited human/clinical data, supported by ex-vivo and in-vivo studies)
One study enrolled 22 female panelists (average age 50) with normal and dry skin types who applied a test moisturizer twice daily for 28 days. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) was measured on the face for long-term effects and on the forearm for short-term effects. Results showed that jojoba oil decreased TEWL within 24 hours after application and continued to reinforce the hydro-lipid barrier after 14 and 28 days of use. To ensure the moisturizing effect was attributable to jojoba oil, hydration levels were measured by Corneometer. The results showed that jojoba oil had a notable short-term moisturizing effect, increasing hydration by 30% within the first half hour after application.
Limitations of this study include its industry-conducted nature, small sample size (n=22), female-only cohort, and lack of published peer-review information on blinding or control conditions.
Evidence level: Preliminary (one uncontrolled observational human study)
External application of clay facial masks is a cosmetic procedure generally used to reduce skin lesions and to improve overall skin condition. A pilot study collected data about self-treatment with clay jojoba oil masks on participants with acne-prone, lesioned skin and acne. It was an open, prospective, observational pilot study: participants received written information, instructions, and questionnaires without direct contact with the study physician. For 6 weeks, they applied the masks 2–3 times per week. The primary outcome was the difference in skin lesions between baseline and after 6 weeks. Results: 194 participants (192 female, 2 male, mean age 32.3 years) returned questionnaires and diaries.
In this study, 194 people with mild acne applied a clay-based mask containing jojoba oil to the face 2–3 times a week for 6 weeks. The researchers found that after 6 weeks, the total number of acne lesions had decreased by 54% on average. The scientists wrote that "the present study gives preliminary evidence that healing clay jojoba oil facial masks can be [an] effective treatment for lesioned skin and mild acne vulgaris." However, the scientists noted that clay might also have contributed to the anti-acne effect. The data were collected via questionnaires.
This study lacks a control arm and does not isolate the contribution of jojoba oil from that of clay. Evidence must be characterized as preliminary.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and ex-vivo only; no controlled human clinical trials identified)
The wound healing properties of jojoba liquid wax were studied in vitro on HaCaT keratinocytes and human dermal fibroblasts, which are involved in wound skin repair. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by the crystal violet staining and neutral red uptake endpoint. Induction of wound healing was assessed by scratch wound assay on cell monolayers. The involvement of signaling pathways was evaluated using a calcium chelator (BAPTA) and kinase inhibitors, and by Western blot analysis. Collagen and gelatinase secretion were assayed by in-cell ELISA and zymography analysis.
Cytotoxicity assays showed that the toxic effects of jojoba liquid wax on these cells are extremely low. Scratch wound experiments showed that jojoba liquid wax notably accelerates wound closure of both keratinocytes and fibroblasts. The data provide a pharmacological characterization of jojoba liquid wax properties on skin cells and suggest that it could be used in the treatment of wounds in clinical settings. However, this remains in-vitro evidence only.
Evidence level: Preliminary ex-vivo (human tissue, not live human clinical trial)
A study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activities of jojoba wax and its impact on the synthesis of extracellular components following topical application. The fatty acid and fatty alcohol profiles of two industrial and two lab-scale cold-press jojoba waxes were analyzed along with total tocopherol and phytosterol content. The dermo-cosmetic effect of all jojoba wax preparations was evaluated ex-vivo, using the human skin organ culture model, which emulates key features of intact tissue. The ability of jojoba wax to reduce secreted levels of key pro-inflammatory cytokines and the safety of the applications in the ex-vivo model were evaluated.
Published in Frontiers in Pharmacology (2024), this study demonstrated that topical jojoba wax enhanced synthesis of pro-collagen III and hyaluronic acid and reduced inflammation markers in the ex-vivo model. Jojoba wax was previously reported to increase cutaneous wound healing, ameliorate acne and psoriasis manifestations, and reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. However, its potential cosmetic properties have not been fully investigated. Because the ex-vivo organ culture model does not replicate the full physiological context of living human skin, these results require confirmation in randomized controlled clinical trials.
Evidence level: Preliminary (pharmaceutical formulation studies only)
Methotrexate-loaded jojoba oil-based microemulsion was proved to be clinically safe and effective in treating psoriasis vulgaris due to its moisturizing and anti-inflammatory effects. Another jojoba oil-based microemulsion loading the synthetic retinoid tazarotene revealed a better therapeutic effect in psoriatic patients than the marketed product with no irritation and a double increase in tazarotene skin deposition. These findings relate to jojoba oil as a pharmaceutical vehicle rather than as a standalone therapeutic agent; the pharmacological activity is primarily attributed to the co-formulated drug.
Jojoba oil-based emulsion of benzoyl peroxide for the treatment of acne was formulated and studied. Based on jojoba oil's emollient effect, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties, the study resulted in a significant reduction in skin irritation and dryness caused by benzoyl peroxide, enhancing its therapeutic effect. As above, jojoba serves here primarily as a pharmaceutical excipient that improves tolerability.
Evidence level: Preclinical only (cell-based model)
Research on jojoba seed extracts and simmondsin in relation to oxidative stress in beta cells remains at the level of cell-based (in vitro) models. Additional studies on the effect of S. chinensis seeds on the prevention of diabetes and its complications are necessary. No human clinical data are available.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro); results mixed
As described under pharmacological activities (Section 4.3), in vitro antimicrobial and antifungal activity has been demonstrated against a range of organisms, but results vary by organism and study, and jojoba oil failed to show activity against several clinically important pathogens including MRSA in some investigations. No human clinical trials on jojoba oil as a standalone antimicrobial agent were identified.
Based on available research, jojoba oil is associated with the following body systems and health areas:
There is no clinical evidence to guide dosage of jojoba or its oil; it is primarily used as a vehicle for oxidation-sensitive substances in ointments.
The following dosages and application parameters have been reported in specific studies:
Simmondsia Chinensis (Jojoba) Seed Oil was not an acute oral toxicant to mice or rats (LD50 generally greater than 5.0 g/kg). Short-term subcutaneous administration of Simmondsia Chinensis (Jojoba) Seed Wax to rats at 1 ml/kg was not toxic. Neither the wax nor the oil were toxic when applied dermally to the shaved backs of guinea pigs in short-term tests.
Results from short-term oral toxicity studies of jojoba oil indicated no treatment-related effects. Only slight conjunctival hyperemia was observed in the eyes of rabbits 1 hour after the instillation of jojoba oil; reactions had cleared by 24-hour post-instillation.
Case reports of contact dermatitis, confirmed by skin patch tests, exist for jojoba oil. Although jojoba oil is generally considered well-tolerated topically, patch testing is advisable in individuals with known sensitivities. A case report published in Contact Dermatitis (2006) is cited in the literature (Di Berardino et al., 2006) as documenting a case of contact dermatitis from jojoba.
While jojoba oil is generally considered safe in topical and some dietary applications, certain forms — especially jojoba meal — can cause significant adverse effects, particularly due to the presence of simmondsin, a toxic compound. The most serious adverse effects are associated with ingestion of jojoba meal, which can be toxic and even fatal in animals.
In rabbits, dietary supplementation with jojoba oil meal led to dose-dependent mortality, with high doses causing 100% death within three weeks. Toxic effects included liver and kidney enlargement, congested blood vessels, and pathological changes such as hepatocellular swelling, bile duct hyperplasia, glomerular nephritis, and thyroiditis — all indicative of simmondsin toxicity.
The toxicity of the constituent simmondsin in jojoba seed meal and some oil components limits the likelihood of clinical applications. Although absolute contraindications have not been identified, jojoba should not be ingested by humans due to potential toxicity.
Simmondsin and simmondsin-containing jojoba meal induce food intake inhibition and emaciation, and had been considered toxic before it was found that long-term administration of lower doses of simmondsin or defatted jojoba meal to growing rats induced a sustained food intake inhibition of about 20% without showing any side effects. Although there are some suggestions that the anorexia induced by defatted jojoba meal is caused by its bitter taste due to the presence of simmondsin 2′-ferulate and tannins, the food intake inhibition in rats can be reversed by the cholecystokinin receptor antagonist devazepide, suggesting the anorexia seen following simmondsin administration is due to stimulation of the cholecystokinin satiation system. These observations are from animal studies; human safety data on oral ingestion of simmondsin are absent.
Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking.
No well-documented drug interactions are reported. However, given jojoba oil's role as a documented penetration enhancer in pharmaceutical microemulsion formulations, drug permeation enhancements were caused by the surfactant, the cosurfactant used, jojoba oil itself, and the microemulsion formulation — an effect that must be considered when jojoba oil is used as a vehicle for topical drugs, as it may alter absorption of co-applied substances.
The overall body of evidence for jojoba oil can be characterized as follows: topical moisturizing and barrier-repair effects are the best-supported clinical applications, with limited but directionally consistent human data. Anti-acne evidence rests on a single uncontrolled pilot study. Anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, collagen-stimulating, and antimicrobial effects have been demonstrated in vitro and in ex-vivo human skin models, but require confirmation in randomized controlled human trials. Antidiabetic and other systemic effects remain at the preclinical stage. Collective findings may shift the paradigm of jojoba usage from a structural ingredient in cosmetic formulation to a key active ingredient.
Health conditions that Jojoba oil may help support.
Jojoba oil has traditional use as a skin healing and scar-softening agent, and is included in authoritative scar treatment ingredient lists. It provides a liquid wax ester structure similar to skin sebum, supporting skin barrier function and hydration in scar tissue.
Body systems that Jojoba oil may help support.
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