Japanese Thistle (Cirsium japonicum): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity and Botanical Description
Cirsium japonicum, commonly known as Japanese thistle, plumed thistle, or sea thistle, is a species of flowering plant in the sunflower family, Asteraceae. It is a perennial thistle native to eastern Asia, ranging from Japan to Korea, China, Taiwan, and Vietnam. In traditional Chinese medicine it is known by the name Da Ji (大薊), and in Japan it is called No-azami.
Five varieties are accepted, including Cirsium japonicum var. japonicum — distributed across China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam — and Cirsium japonicum var. maritimum.
A clump-forming biennial or short-lived perennial, up to 2 m high, with deeply lobed to pinnately divided, spiny dark green leaves; in late summer to early autumn, it produces tall, branching stems bearing thistle-like flowers with tubular pink or lilac-purple petals. The flower head (a head-like inflorescence composed only of cylindrical flowers) has a diameter of 4 to 5 cm and is typically purple, though it can rarely be white.
It is listed in the Japanese and Chinese pharmacopoeias and has been used in Chinese medicine as an antihemorrhagic, antihypertensive, and antihepatitis agent, as well as a diuretic.
Common Names and Synonyms
- Botanical name: Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC.
- Common names: Japanese thistle, plumed thistle, sea thistle, No-azami (Japanese), Da Ji (Chinese: 大薊), Korean thistle
- Pharmacopeial name: Herba Cirsii Japonici (whole herb); Radix Cirsii Japonici (root)
- Key variety: Cirsium japonicum var. maackii — widely studied in Korean research
Natural Source and Plant Parts Used
The whole plants of this genus can be excavated in spring and autumn, and dried in the sun after being cut into sections. Edible parts include leaves and roots; the leaves are used cooked and are very palatable in spring, used together with the young roots. In Japan, the essential oils extracted from its rhizomes are also valued as ingredients in fragrances.
Common Preparation Forms
- Dried herb / decoction: A decoction of the dried roots is used in the treatment of boils and carbuncles, acute appendicitis, uterine bleeding, haematuria, nose bleeds, haematemesis, and traumatic bleeding.
- Standardized extracts: Hydroalcoholic and ethanol extracts standardized to total flavonoid content are the most studied forms in modern research.
- Cosmetic extracts: Dried C. japonicum flower powder is extracted with 70% (v/v) ethanol at room temperature, filtered, and the solvent removed by rotary vacuum evaporator to obtain a flower extract (CFE) for use as a cosmetic ingredient.
- Functional food ingredient: The plant has a long history of being used as functional food and herb.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
As a traditional cool blood hemostatic medicine, Cirsium has a long history of medicinal use. C. japonicum and C. setosum were first recorded in the Famous Doctor Records of the Han Dynasty, and they have also been documented in the Materia Medica of past dynasties. Most Cirsium plants are considered sweet and cool in nature, and return to the liver meridian, with efficacy of cooling blood, stopping bleeding, dispelling blood stasis, detoxifying, and eliminating carbuncle.
Pectolinarin and linarin, two major flavone O-glycosides of Cirsium japonicum, come from a medicinal plant listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, which has been used in Traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years.
Historical records, especially from traditional Chinese medicine, cite Japanese thistle as a valuable remedy for promoting blood circulation and alleviating bleeding disorders; it was commonly used to address conditions such as hemoptysis (coughing blood), nosebleeds, and heavy menstrual bleeding, owing to its reputed hemostatic effects.
Beyond its role in controlling bleeding, Japanese thistle has been utilized to support liver health and detoxification; folk remedies included using its aerial parts as teas or decoctions to soothe the liver, reduce inflammation, and support overall vitality.
Traditional Korean Medicine
The plant has been used as an antihemorrhagic, antihypertensive, and antihepatitis agent, and has been prescribed in the treatment of tumors such as liver cancer, uterine cancer, and leukaemia in folk medicine, and used as a hemostatic agent in herbal preparations to prevent epistaxis and metrorrhagia and to improve blood circulation.
Traditional Japanese Use
The plant is used as a folk remedy in Asian countries and as a diuretic, antiphlogistic, hemostatic, and detoxifying agent in Oriental medicine. It has been cultivated for cut flowers in Japan.
Traditional Vietnamese and Taiwanese Use
Species of Cirsium (Asteraceae family) have been used in folk hepatoprotective medicine in Taiwan. Cirsium japonicum var. japonicum is cultivated for medicinal properties, particularly in Puli and Ren'ai Townships of Nantou County on Taiwan.
TCM Clinical Formulas
In clinical application, modified XiaoJi Yinzi prescription has been used, with the dosage of C. japonicum increased for patients with hematuria for better curative effect; XiaoJi Yinzi combined with levofloxacin and epristeride has shown significant clinical effect in the treatment of complications after benign prostatic hyperplasia.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
Overview of Phytochemistry
It is known that C. japonicum contains flavonoids, furans, long-chain alcohols, sterols, and volatile oils. A comprehensive recent analysis using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS technology further identified the full scope of these compounds. Using this approach, 94 chemical constituents were identified in C. japonicum, including 57 organic acids, 25 flavonoids, 3 phenylpropanoids, and 9 other types of compounds.
Principal Flavonoids
Pectolinarin and linarin are two major flavone O-glycosides of Cirsium japonicum. The main flavonoids studied are pectolinarin, linarin, and pectolinarigenin, with pectolinarigenin representing the aglycone form of pectolinarin.
- Pectolinarin: Pectolinarigenin is a flavone and a 6,4′-dimethyl ether derivative of scutellarein, and pectolinarin is a flavonoid with its base on the pectolinarigenin 7-O position structure. It is the most abundant and pharmacologically well-characterized constituent.
- Linarin: A flavone O-glycoside co-occurring with pectolinarin. The ORAC values of pectolinarin and linarin are 4543 and 1441 µmol TE/g, respectively, and the COX-2 inhibition rate at 50 µg/mL of linarin and pectolinarin reached 55.35% and 40.40%, respectively.
- Cirsimarin: In the analysis of flavonoid contents in C. japonicum var. Maackii, compounds in the ethyl acetate fraction were identified as cirsimaritin, hispidulin, and cirsimarin, with cirsimaritin being the main constituent.
- Apigenin and luteolin: Cirsium japonicum extracts contain various flavonoid compounds, and apigenin and kaempferol derivatives are among the Cirsium-derived flavonoids.
Other Major Constituents
Fourteen effective components of C. japonicum include methyl linoleate, oleic acid, stigmasterol, and sitosterol; stigmasterol has been shown to exhibit potent anti-cancer properties, while also showing effects against osteoarthritis and inflammation.
Geographical Variation in Constituents
Previous studies have indicated that the chemical compound content of C. japonicum from different places was different, which may affect clinical efficacy.
4. Mechanisms of Action
Hemostatic and Coagulation Mechanisms
Cirsium plants are regarded as a safe and effective medicine for cooling blood and hemostasis, and recent studies on pharmacology and phytochemistry have provided scientific evidence for this traditional application. Cirsium japonicum DC., a traditional Chinese medicine, has been shown to have anti-haemorrhagic and anti-tumour effects, and pharmacological studies have demonstrated that this curative effect may be related to flavonoids.
Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
In vitro analysis of C. japonicum extract (CJE) was carried out in macrophage cells after inducing inflammation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS); as a result, it downregulated the expression of two critical pro-inflammatory cytokines, COX-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).
Pectolinarin, a flavonoid compound isolated from C. japonicum var. ussuriense, suppressed cell proliferation and inflammatory response, and induced apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes via inactivation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway.
In in vivo bioassays, pectolinarin was shown to alleviate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute liver and kidney injury in mice, and metabolomics analysis showed that pectolinarin attenuates LPS-challenged liver and kidney stress through regulating the arachidonic acid metabolism and glutathione synthesis pathways.
Antihypertensive and Cardiovascular Mechanisms
The aqueous extract of C. japonicum (0.1–1.0 mg/ml) has been reported to induce vasorelaxation of noradrenaline pre-constricted rat isolated thoracic aortic rings through activation of histamine H1 receptors; the underlying mechanism involves elevated levels of nitric oxide (NO) and cyclic GMP (cGMP).
Studies have demonstrated that intermedin (IMD) has protective effects on hypertension in rats by regulating the Ang/NO metabolic pathway, and research has investigated whether, by regulating the expression of IMD, Cirsium japonicum could improve cardiac function in rats with 2k1c-induced renal hypertension.
Hepatoprotective Mechanisms
A flowering plant in the Asteraceae family, Cirsium japonicum exhibits pharmacological and antioxidative properties that promote hepatoprotection; in cell studies, CJ ethanol extract was shown to reduce hepatic triglyceride and cholesterol accumulation, significantly increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation in HepG2 hepatocytes, and downregulated the level of target genes acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase, while also upregulating the expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, which is involved in fatty acid oxidation.
Antidiabetic Mechanisms
The antidiabetic activity of root extracts was evaluated by the α-glucosidase inhibition assay, and the water extract showed a considerable α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. A study on the in vivo antidiabetic activity of a mixture of pectolinarin and pectolinarigenin (62.8% and 36.5%, respectively) found that treatment with a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight per day displayed a significant anti-hyperglycemic effect, mainly observed in the case of the flavone mixture.
Antitumor Mechanisms
A study on the effect of a methanol extract of C. japonicum on growth in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 found that the extract inhibited cell proliferation in a time- and dose-dependent manner; furthermore, C. japonicum extract induced an anti-proliferative effect by causing G1 phase cell cycle arrest and also induced apoptosis by affecting mitochondrial apoptotic events; taken together, these findings indicate that C. japonicum extract induces inhibition of MCF-7 cell growth at both the proliferation and apoptosis levels.
An in vitro study revealed that CJ-functionalized gold nanoparticles (CJ-AuNPs) trigger oxidative stress and iron-dependent ferroptosis in AGS gastric cancer cells, mechanistically inducing mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), Fe²⁺, and lipid peroxidation accumulation, and mitochondrial damage by destroying the glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX4)-dependent antioxidant capacity.
Neuroprotective / Cognitive Mechanisms
Cirsium japonicum var. maackii (CJM) is a medicinal plant with anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidant, and antidiabetic effects, and in particular has been reported to inhibit reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and BACE1 activity, indicating that CJM may prevent oxidative stress-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.
5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area
5.1 Hemostasis and Bleeding Disorders
Evidence type: Preclinical and traditional/clinical observational data.
Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC. and Cirsium setosum (Willd.) MB are commonly used clinically to stop bleeding and eliminate carbuncles; C. japonicum is mainly used for treating inflammation, while C. setosum favors hemostasis. Chinese physicians use Cirsii Herba to treat hemorrhage, hypertension, and hepatitis. While there is substantial traditional and some clinical formula-based evidence for hemostatic use, no large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) specifically isolating C. japonicum alone for hemostatic endpoints in humans have been identified in the literature.
5.2 Liver Disease and Hepatoprotection
Evidence type: In vitro (human cell line) and animal models; no clinical RCTs identified.
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is strongly associated with obesity and dysregulated insulin action in the liver; there are no pharmacological agents currently established for the treatment of NAFLD; Cirsium japonicum exhibits a variety of pharmacological and antioxidative properties that promote hepatoprotection, and CJ ethanol extract was shown to reduce hepatic triglyceride and cholesterol accumulation. The plant also shows significant hepatoprotective activity and may be a potential clinical candidate for the treatment of liver disease. However, the pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics and mechanism of action also need in-depth study. Evidence remains at the preclinical stage.
5.3 Hypertension and Cardiovascular Function
Evidence type: Animal models (rat) and isolated tissue; no human clinical trials identified.
Cirsium japonicum, a constituent of traditional Chinese medicine, has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects as well as to improve the circulation and thus to counteract hematologic stasis. Renal hypertension was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by occluding the renal artery; the rats were randomly divided into four groups, including a C. japonicum group administered 1.8 g/kg per day; cardiac function, plasma angiotensin II, intermedin, serum nitric oxide, and nitric oxide synthase were analyzed. The evidence is limited to animal and isolated tissue experiments.
5.4 Diabetes and Metabolic Disease
Evidence type: In vitro enzyme inhibition, animal models; no human RCTs identified.
Cirsium japonicum var. maackii exhibits antioxidant, antidiabetic, antitumor, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory activities; a study measuring effects on metabolic syndrome by improving insulin resistance in a db/db type 2 diabetes mouse model administered CJ extract for 6 weeks showed that CJE was effective in reducing body weight and fat mass, showed positive effects on lowering blood glucose and improving insulin sensitivity, improved dyslipidemia by increasing serum-HDL levels and decreasing serum-LDL levels, and reduced liver and kidney damage in histological analysis. These results remain preclinical.
5.5 Antitumor and Anticancer Activity
Evidence type: In vitro cell lines and xenograft animal models; no human clinical trials identified.
C. japonicum has demonstrated inhibitory effects on breast cancer (MCF-7) and liver cancer (HepG2) cells. In a xenograft mouse model implanted with AGS (gastric cancer) cells, treatment with 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg CJ-AuNPs for 16 days reduced tumor xenograft growth in a dose-dependent manner in vivo without systemic toxicity; these results demonstrate that CJ-AuNPs exert anticancer effects in vitro and in vivo by inducing ferroptosis-mediated cancer cell death. All anticancer evidence is preclinical; no human trials have been conducted or identified.
5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
Evidence type: In vitro and animal models.
C. japonicum possesses various functions such as bacteriostasis, anti-inflammation, blood coagulation and hemostasis, blood pressure reduction, and anti-tumor effects; one study showed that the combined treatment of Aralia elata and C. japonicum has anti-inflammatory effects on RAW 264.7 cells and demonstrates protective effects against dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice and acetic acid-mediated colitis in dogs. Evidence remains at the preclinical stage.
5.7 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function
Evidence type: Animal models only.
A study focused on the protective effect of the ethyl acetate fraction from C. japonicum var. maackii (ECJM) on amyloid-beta (Aβ25-35)-induced mice; in the T-maze and novel object recognition test, ECJM provided higher spatial memory and object recognition compared to Aβ25-35 treatment alone, and in the Morris water maze test, ECJM-administered mice showed greater learning and memory abilities than Aβ25-35-induced control mice. ECJM-administered mice also experienced inhibited lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide production in a dose-dependent manner; the study indicates that ECJM improves cognitive impairment by inhibiting oxidative stress in Aβ25-35-induced mice. No human evidence exists for this application.
5.8 Skin Aging and Cosmeceutical Use
Evidence type: In vitro, 3D cell culture, and one clinical (cosmetic) study.
A study investigated the effects of Cirsium japonicum flower (CFE) extract on glycation in relation to skin aging and skin elasticity, carrying out an in vitro glycation study, 3-dimensional culture, and a clinical study; CFE inhibited formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in both the BSA/glucose glycation system and the aldehyde-derived glycation system, reduced Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) and carbonylated proteins that increased by glycation, and broke crosslinks of collagen-AGEs while inhibiting the increase of MMP-1 gene expression by AGEs. Apigenin was detected as the main active constituent in CFE with anti-glycation effects, and in the clinical study, CFE was confirmed to have effects on skin wrinkles and skin elasticity. The findings suggest that CFE can be used as a cosmetic or cosmeceutical ingredient for improving skin elasticity and wrinkles. The clinical study is limited to a cosmetic endpoint; it is not a full drug trial.
5.9 Antioxidant Activity
Evidence type: In vitro biochemical assays.
A study investigated the antioxidant activity of methanol and water extracts from roots of Cirsium japonicum in vitro; methanol extract showed stronger free radical scavenging activity than water extract, but both extracts showed concentration-dependent hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, reducing power, and metal chelating ability, and methanol extract had greater phenolic and flavonoid contents than water extract. The ORAC values of pectolinarin and linarin are 4543 and 1441 µmol TE/g, respectively.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Japanese Thistle
- Hematopoietic / Coagulation system: Hemostatic effects; used for various hemorrhagic conditions.
- Liver / Hepatic system: Pharmacological reports indicate hepatoprotective, hemostatic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and sedative activities.
- Cardiovascular system: Antihypertensive and vasorelaxant effects via NO/cGMP pathway.
- Metabolic / Endocrine system: Antidiabetic effects via α-glucosidase inhibition and AMPK activation.
- Immune / Inflammatory system: Suppression of COX-2 and iNOS; reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8.
- Oncological (preclinical): In vitro and animal-model evidence for antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activity.
- Neurological system: Inhibition of BACE1 and oxidative stress; preclinical cognitive improvement in Alzheimer's models.
- Integumentary / Skin: Anti-glycation and anti-aging effects at the cosmeceutical level.
- Urinary system: Used as a diuretic in Oriental medicine.
7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages in Studies
No standardized human dosage has been established through large clinical trials. The following dosages have been reported in specific preclinical and early-stage research:
- Antidiabetic (animal, in vivo): A mixture of pectolinarin and pectolinarigenin (62.8% and 36.5%, respectively) at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight per day displayed a significant anti-hyperglycemic effect in vivo.
- Metabolic syndrome (mouse model): A db/db type 2 diabetes mouse model received CJ extract (CJE) for 6 weeks.
- Cardiovascular / Antihypertensive (rat model): C. japonicum was administered at 1.8 g/kg per day to Sprague-Dawley rats with 2k1c-induced renal hypertension.
- Vasorelaxation (isolated tissue): An aqueous extract at concentrations of 0.1–1.0 mg/ml induced vasorelaxation of noradrenaline pre-constricted rat isolated thoracic aortic rings.
- Neuroprotection / Cognitive (mouse model): ECJM at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg/day was orally administered to an Alzheimer's disease mouse model induced by Aβ25-35, confirming cognitive improvement effects and protective mechanisms.
- Antitumor (xenograft mouse model): Treatment with 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg CJ-functionalized gold nanoparticles for 16 days reduced tumor xenograft growth in a dose-dependent manner.
- Acute toxicity (safety study): No significant adverse effects on body weight, mortality, or gross findings were observed for 15 days after a single dose of 2,000 mg of extracts/kg body weight of administration.
- COX-2 inhibition (in vitro): The COX-2 inhibition rate at 50 µg/mL of linarin and pectolinarin reached 55.35% and 40.40%, respectively.
- Traditional TCM herbal decoction: Used according to Chinese pharmacopoeial standards, typically as part of compound formulas; specific single-herb human dosing from clinical TCM prescriptions is found in formula-based studies but precise individual dosages are not consistently reported in English-language peer-reviewed literature.
8. Safety Considerations and Known Interactions
Acute Toxicity
A study evaluated safety on Cirsium japonicum extracts containing flavones by examining acute oral toxicity, bacterial reverse mutation, and chromosome aberration tests; no significant adverse effects on body weight, mortality, or gross findings were observed for 15 days after a single dose of 2,000 mg/kg body weight of administration; in the bacterial reverse mutation assay, C. japonicum extracts ranging from 156 to 5,000 µg/plate did not induce base-pair substitution or frame shift.
Methanol extracts of C. japonicum, including those containing apigenin and luteolin, did not induce acute toxicity or mutagenicity, and all results suggest that methanol extracts of C. japonicum may be useful substances for application in dietary supplements.
Cytotoxicity Toward Healthy Cells
The cytotoxicity of flavonoids, saponins, polysaccharides, essential oil, coumarin, and alkaloids isolated from Cirsium japonicum DC has been investigated in healthy liver cells and human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549). No severe cytotoxic effects were reported in healthy liver cells at investigated concentrations; detailed data requires direct consultation of the primary publication (Ma et al., 2019).
Asteraceae Allergy
Overall safety data are positive, with adverse reactions being rare and limited mainly to those already sensitive to Asteraceae plants. Individuals with known allergy to members of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family — including ragweed, chrysanthemums, marigolds, and daisies — may face potential cross-reactivity.
Limitations of Safety Data
Cirsium japonicum extracts are being developed as functional ingredients in dietary supplements due to their biological activities; however, studies on their safety evaluation are limited. Current pharmacological research shows that Cirsium has a wide variety of effects such as liver protection, antioxidation, anti-tumor, antibacterial, and anti-inflammation, and some species show a promising prospective in the treatments of anxiety, depression, diabetes, and obesity; however, most studies are focused on the commonly used species such as C. japonicum and C. setosum, and systematic research is still needed.
Pharmacokinetics and Drug Interactions
Cirsium japonicum shows significant hepatoprotective activity and may be a potential clinical candidate for the treatment of liver disease; however, the qualitative and quantitative analysis, pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics, and mechanism of action also need in-depth study. No well-characterized drug-drug interaction data in humans are currently available in the indexed literature. Given its activity on cytochrome P450-related metabolic pathways (suggested by metabolomics studies on arachidonic acid metabolism), potential interactions with anticoagulant or antihypertensive drugs cannot be excluded but have not been formally studied.
Chinese Pharmacopoeia Status
Cirsii Herba (CH), listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, is often mixed with Cirsium japonicum DC and Cirsium setosum (Willd.) MB in the traditional Chinese material market because they are similar in morphology and taxonomy. This taxonomic confusion means product quality and consistency can vary, depending on the source material and whether identity verification has been performed.
References
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