Glycol

Glycols as Dietary and Food-Grade Ingredients: A Reference Overview of Propylene Glycol (E1520) and Glycerol

Preliminary Note on Nomenclature

The term "glycol" does not designate a single discrete dietary supplement ingredient recognized by any major pharmacopeia, government health agency, or evidence database. Rather, it names a chemical class — polyhydric alcohols bearing two hydroxyl (–OH) groups — that includes numerous individual compounds. In the contexts of food science, nutrition, and dietary supplementation, two members of this class are of primary practical relevance: propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol; CAS 57-55-6; food additive code E1520), and glycerol (glycerine/glycerin; CAS 56-81-5; a triol, or three-hydroxyl alcohol, closely related structurally and often grouped with glycols in applied discussions). This article covers both compounds in their food, supplement, and health-science contexts, grounding every claim in peer-reviewed research, government regulatory opinions, and official toxicological profiles.

---

Part I: Propylene Glycol (1,2-Propanediol; E1520)

1. Identity, Chemistry, and Physical Properties

Propylene glycol is a synthetic food additive that belongs to the same chemical group as alcohol. It is a colorless, odorless, water-soluble liquid considered safe for use in commercial formulations of foods, drugs, and cosmetics. Chemically known as propylene glycol (also: propan-1,2-diol or 1,2-propanediol), it is a synthetically produced, colorless and odorless alcohol used in the food industry as an approved additive. It is a colorless, odorless, slightly syrupy liquid that is a bit thicker than water, has practically no taste, and can dissolve some substances better than water while also being good at retaining moisture.

Propylene glycol, CAS Reg. No. 57-55-6, also known as 1,2-propanediol, carries the INS/E Number 1520 and has approved uses in foods in the EU, United States, and worldwide. Propylene glycol is sometimes confused with ethylene glycol, as both have been used in antifreeze due to their low freezing points; however, ethylene glycol is highly toxic to humans and is not used in food products.

2. Natural Sources and Production

For the needs of the food industry, propylene glycol is produced industrially from simple organic compounds — mainly through the hydration of propylene oxide, which in turn is manufactured from petrochemical propylene. At the final stage, the product is purified and standardized to food-grade quality. Propylene glycol is not a natural component of the human body and does not perform biologically essential functions.

Further purification produces finished industrial grade or USP/JP/EP/BP grade propylene glycol that is typically 99.5% or greater. In pharmaceutical contexts, distinct USP, EP (European Pharmacopoeia), and JP (Japanese Pharmacopoeia) grades exist, distinguishing food/pharmaceutical-grade material from industrial uses.

3. Regulatory Status

Propylene glycol is designated as a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) additive by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and is widely used in commercial formulations of foods, drugs, and cosmetics. Propylene glycol is "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the US, it can be used as a direct and indirect food additive. In Europe, it is only allowed to be used in food as a solvent for certain additives.

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS) has provided a scientific opinion re-evaluating the safety of propane-1,2-diol (E 1520) when used as a food additive. In 1996, the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) established an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 25 mg/kg body weight. Its safety has also been approved by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA).

In the EU, E1520 is authorized mainly in Annex III-type uses as a carrier or solvent in preparations such as food additives, enzymes, nutrients, and flavorings, with conditions depending on the application. In the European Union, E1520 is approved under Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 on food additives. Its use is restricted to specific food categories and subject to defined maximum permitted levels.

The EMA has evaluated propylene glycol specifically as a pharmaceutical excipient for medicines. The EMA concluded that in children from the age of 5 years and adult patients, up to 500 mg/kg/day of propylene glycol could generally be considered safe. In the absence of compelling data, this safety threshold is decreased to 50 mg/kg/day in children less than 5 years old.

4. Functional Roles in Food and Pharmaceutical Preparations

Propylene glycol is commonly used as an additive to aid in the processing of foods and improve their texture, flavor, appearance, and shelf life. Its specific roles include:

• Anti-caking agent: It helps prevent food components from sticking to one another and forming clumps, such as in dried soups or grated cheese.
• Antioxidant: It extends the shelf life of foods by protecting them against deterioration caused by oxygen.
• Carrier/solvent: It dissolves other food additives or nutrients to be used in processing, such as colors, flavors, or antioxidants.
• Dough strengthener: It modifies the starches and gluten in dough to make it more stable.
• Emulsifier: It prevents food ingredients from separating, such as oil and vinegar in salad dressing.
• Pharmaceutical excipient: Propylene glycol is commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as a solvent for drugs, as a stabilizer for vitamins, and in ointments for medicinal applications.

Propylene glycol is a multi-functional ingredient generally recognized as safe (GRAS) that can be used as an anticaking agent, dough strengthener, emulsifier, humectant, solvent, stabilizer, thickener, texturizer, and in other roles in food.

5. Biochemistry, Metabolism, and Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of propylene glycol has been examined during multiple oral-dosing regimens. The glycol is rapidly absorbed, with peak serum concentration observed within 1 hour following administration. The terminal elimination half-life is approximately 4 hours. After a minimum of 10 half-lives of maintenance dosing on a fixed regimen, the accumulation of propylene glycol differed significantly among individuals because of variability in apparent clearance.

In adults, 45% of propylene glycol is eliminated through the renal route and 55% is metabolized in the liver by the cytosolic enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) to lactate and pyruvate. The major metabolic pathway in mammals is considered to be propylene glycol oxidation by alcohol dehydrogenase to lactaldehyde, then to lactate by aldehyde dehydrogenase. The lactate is further metabolized to pyruvate, carbon dioxide, and water. Lactate also contributes to glucose formation.

Propylene glycol undergoes metabolic oxidation to pyruvic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and propionaldehyde. It is mainly excreted in the urine as the glucuronide conjugate, but 12–45% is excreted unchanged. Propylene glycol is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and then widely distributed to organs and tissues. The major route of metabolism is oxidation to lactic acid and pyruvic acid. At high concentrations, free propylene glycol is excreted in the urine. Both lactic and pyruvic acids are endogenous to humans, and thus not deemed a safety concern.

6. Traditional and Historical Use

Propylene glycol has no meaningful history of traditional or pre-industrial use. For the needs of the food industry, propylene glycol is produced industrially from simple organic compounds — mainly through the hydration of propylene oxide, which in turn is manufactured from petrochemical propylene. It is a product of modern organic chemistry and industrial synthesis; no pre-modern cultures employed it for dietary, medicinal, or ritual purposes. Its large-scale use in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals developed primarily in the 20th century following the growth of the petrochemical industry.

7. Scientific Evidence and Clinical Applications

Propylene glycol is not a natural component of the human body and does not perform biologically essential functions. It does not provide direct health benefits; however, it is considered technologically useful, as it helps products maintain uniformity, flavor, and texture. As such, propylene glycol is not studied or used as an active dietary supplement ingredient intended to produce specific physiological health outcomes. The scientific literature on propylene glycol relates primarily to its toxicological profile, pharmacokinetics as a pharmaceutical excipient, and food safety assessment.

8. Dosage Reported in Regulatory and Research Contexts

• The acceptable daily intake (ADI) for propylene glycol has been set at 25 mg per kg of body weight per day.
• The EMA concluded that in children from the age of 5 years and adult patients, up to 500 mg/kg/day of propylene glycol could generally be considered safe.
• The use of propylene glycol in food and other applications is widespread, and some estimates of dietary exposure to propylene glycol approach or exceed the Acceptable Daily Intake of 25 mg/kg bw-day.
• No safety concerns were raised for daily dietary exposures of 2,400 mg per capita in earlier JECFA review contexts.
• In a human dietary supplementation study by Anderson et al. (1991), five male volunteers consumed propylene glycol alginate corresponding to 175 mg/kg body weight for 7 days, followed by 200 mg/kg body weight for a further 16 days.

9. Safety, Toxicology, and Drug Interactions

Oral exposure to propylene glycol occurs through ingestion of foods, since propylene glycol is approved for use as a food additive. Ingestion by humans is not frequently associated with adverse effects. Oral exposure to the small amounts of propylene glycol found in foods and drugs is unlikely to cause toxic effects.

The acute oral toxicity of propylene glycol is very low, and large quantities are required to cause perceptible health damage in humans; propylene glycol is metabolized in the human body into pyruvic acid (a normal part of the glucose-metabolism process), acetic acid, lactic acid, and propionaldehyde. Serious toxicity generally occurs only at plasma concentrations over 1 g/L, which requires extremely high intake over a relatively short period of time. It would be nearly impossible to reach toxic levels by consuming foods or supplements, which contain at most 1 g/kg of propylene glycol.

However, toxicity has been well documented in clinical settings where propylene glycol is delivered as a pharmaceutical vehicle in high doses:

• Lactic acidosis has occurred in patients, often those with renal dysfunction, who were receiving prolonged infusions of drugs that contain propylene glycol as a diluent.
• High levels of propylene glycol in the plasma can lead to an increase in the osmolal gap. Propylene glycol is oxidatively converted to lactic and pyruvic acids which, if present in sufficient amounts, contribute to a metabolic acidosis. However, acidosis from propylene glycol is not as severe as that due to ethylene glycol.
• Propylene glycol is metabolized into lactic acid in the body. In individuals with impaired kidney or liver function, this can lead to a buildup of lactic acid, causing metabolic acidosis.
• Propylene glycol is a pharmaceutical excipient generally regarded as safe (GRAS), though clinical toxicity has been reported. Propylene glycol toxicity has been attributed to accumulation due to saturation of the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)-mediated clearance pathway.
• Increased caution is advised in infants and individuals with impaired kidney function, as metabolism may be slowed.
• Dermal exposure to propylene glycol, through cosmetics or drugs, or inhalation of synthetic smoke or mist, may be more frequently associated with reported reactions.

Interactions: Propylene glycol is a diluent found in many intravenous and oral drugs, including phenytoin, diazepam, and lorazepam. It is eliminated from the body by oxidation through alcohol dehydrogenase to form lactic acid. This shared metabolic pathway with ethanol means that concurrent alcohol use may compete for alcohol dehydrogenase, potentially slowing propylene glycol clearance and increasing the risk of accumulation. EFSA did not consider propylene glycol as an allergen as a food additive. Also, although with low irritant potency, no allergy potential or immunotoxicity of propylene glycol has been reported when used in cosmetics until 2011 by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR).

The safety case for normal food-use levels is graded as low concern because normal food-use exposure is far below the dose range associated with the main toxicological effects. The safety case is not based on approval alone: repeated-dose studies, reproductive evaluations, and modern reviews are broadly consistent in showing low concern for carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, and organ toxicity at realistic dietary exposure.

---

Part II: Glycerol (Glycerin / Glycerine)

1. Identity, Chemistry, and Physical Properties

Glycerol is a naturally occurring 3-carbon alcohol in the human body. It is the structural backbone of triacylglycerol molecules, and can also be converted to a glycolytic substrate for subsequent metabolism. Glycerol's chemical formula is C₃H₈O₃. Its chemical structure classifies it as a sugar alcohol or polyol, though it does not have intoxicating effects like the ethanol found in wines and beers.

Although glycerol is technically a triol (three hydroxyl groups) rather than a diol (two hydroxyl groups), it is closely related to the glycol class and is routinely discussed alongside glycols in food science, pharmacology, and biochemistry. Glycerine, also referred to as glycerol, is a clear, odorless liquid commonly used in food, skincare, pharmaceuticals, and industrial products. It is a colorless, clear liquid with a syrupy consistency. While glycerine does not have a distinct odor, it has a notably sweet taste.

Modern use of the word glycerine (alternatively spelled glycerin) refers to commercial preparations of glycerol that are less than 100% pure, typically 95%. Glycerol is listed under multiple pharmacopeias, including the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) and the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), where further distillation brings the purity to 99.7% or higher, the standard required for USP-grade glycerin — the grade used in medications, food products, and high-quality skincare.

2. Natural Sources and Production

Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs in triglycerides, esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known as glycerides, where one or more of the hydroxyl groups are esterified with fatty acids. The most abundant of glycerides are triglycerides (found in animal fats and vegetable oils), the form in which glycerol is most commonly found in nature.

Natural glycerine is derived from plant oils or animal fats. Vegetable-based glycerine often comes from palm oil, coconut oil, soy, or rapeseed. This type is commonly used in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, and is suitable for vegan products. Animal-based glycerine is usually obtained from beef or mutton fat.

The polyol occurs naturally in fermented foods and beverages, including beer, honey, vinegar, wine, and wine vinegar.

Commercially, glycerol is primarily obtained as a byproduct of industrial processes: for economic reasons, almost all commercial glycerol comes from hydrolyzing glycerides in natural fats, especially since the advent of using fatty acids to make biodiesel fuels. Crude glycerin is a by-product of biodiesel production from vegetable sources such as palm oil, rapeseed, and soybeans. In this process, refined, bleached vegetable oil is reacted with methanol to carry out a transesterification reaction in the presence of a catalyst. This yields biodiesel and crude glycerin. Glycerol, originally considered a by-product in the candle and soap production processes, was historically discarded in these manufacturing activities.

3. Historical and Traditional Use

Théophile-Jules Pelouze determined glycerol's empirical formula in 1836. Glycerin is easy to make and has been part of soap-making since the 19th century. Unlike many botanical supplement ingredients, glycerol does not have an ancient ethnomedicinal history; its intentional use as a distinct substance began in the industrial era. Up until 1940, the global demand for glycerol was met through natural sources, primarily the production of soaps and candles. Additionally, glycerol could be produced through sugar fermentation, a method employed to boost glycerol production during World War I.

Glycerol infusion and ingestion have been used in research settings for almost 60 years, with widespread clinical use between 1961 and 1980 in the treatment of cerebral oedema resulting from acute ischaemic stroke, intraocular hypertension (glaucoma), intracranial hypertension, postural syncope, and improved rehydration during acute gastrointestinal disease. These clinical applications represent a mid-20th century medicinal history rather than a traditional cultural history.

4. Key Constituents and Biochemistry

Glycerol is itself the active compound when used as a supplement; it has no secondary active constituents. Its physiological significance derives from its endogenous biochemical role. Glycerol is a naturally occurring 3-carbon alcohol in the human body. It is the structural backbone of triacylglycerol molecules, and can also be converted to a glycolytic substrate for subsequent metabolism. Serum glycerol concentrations approximate 0.05 mmol/L at rest, and can increase to 0.30 mmol/L during increased lipolysis associated with prolonged exercise or caloric restriction.

Total body glycerol disposal can be divided into oxidation and gluconeogenesis. Most of the glycerol is turned into glucose in the liver by gluconeogenesis, and the remainder is oxidized.

5. Mechanisms of Action in a Supplementation Context

The central mechanism by which supplemental glycerol exerts its most studied effects — hyperhydration and osmotic support — is well characterized:

When glycerol is ingested or infused at doses greater than 1.0 g/kg bodyweight, serum concentrations can increase to approximately 20 mmol/L, resulting in more than a 10 mOsmol/kg increase in serum osmolality. This increase in osmolality drives water retention across body compartments. Since 1987, glycerol ingestion with added fluid has been used to increase total body water (glycerol hyperhydration) by up to 700 ml, thereby providing benefits of improved thermoregulation and endurance during exercise or exposure to hot environments.

Glycerol-induced hyperhydration (GIH) has been demonstrated to enhance total body water by an additional 250–660 mL after 2–2.5 hours when 21–26 ml/kg bodyweight of fluid with 0.9–1.5 g glycerol/kg bodyweight has been ingested together. This osmotic retention of fluid is the primary proposed mechanism for thermoregulatory and performance benefits.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

6a. Fluid Balance and Thermoregulation

Glycerol supplementation has been proposed as a promising ergogenic aid and a hyperhydrating agent to enhance athletic performance. Glycerol-induced hyperhydration improves fluid retention, contributing to an effective hyperhydration status.

When added to water or sports drinks before exercise, glycerol has several benefits, including faster heart rate recovery, enhanced body temperature regulation and reduced rectal temperature (particularly in hot and humid environments), reduced perceived exertion, and improved hydration levels.

Anderson et al. observed that ingestion of 1 g/kg body mass of glycerol plus 20 ml/kg body mass of water decreased urine volume (−25% in 120 minutes), heart rate, and rectal temperature (−0.4°C) compared to placebo in endurance athletes trained in ambient conditions of 35°C and 30% relative humidity.

6b. Athletic and Exercise Performance

Glycerol, a naturally occurring metabolite, has been shown to be a safe and effective hyperhydrating agent. Glycerol combined with water hyperhydration increases total body water when compared with water hyperhydration alone. Different authors have shown conflicting results when assessing the effect of pre-exercise glycerol administration on subsequent performance functions.

Several researchers have shown positive effects on performance after glycerol ingestion. It has been suggested that glycerol-induced hyperhydration increases exercise performance. It has been demonstrated that glycerol ingestion increases exercise tolerance in terms of time by approximately 24%.

Despite these findings, others have shown no benefits from pre-exercise hyperhydration with glycerol compared with hyperhydration with water alone. The results of glycerol-induced hyperhydration research have been equivocal, most likely because of methodologic differences between studies, such as variations in the intensity of exercise, environmental conditions, and concentration or dose of glycerol administered.

The differences between findings across studies evaluating glycerol's impact on running performance could be related to glycerol's positive effects on heart rate regulation, a variable closely linked to metabolism, oxygen consumption, and energy expenditure. These findings support the hypothesis that the reduction in heart rate induced by glycerol supplementation is a key factor in improving running economy-related variables.

Evidence quality note: The existing evidence for glycerol as a sports ergogenic aid is mixed. Most studies are small and have methodological heterogeneity. Despite the small number of studies on glycerol hyperhydration and exercise, it appears to be an effective method of improving tolerance to exercise and other heat-related stress. No large-scale randomized controlled trials establishing definitive performance benefits have been published as of the sources consulted. Effect estimates vary considerably across studies.

6c. Clinical Neurological and Ophthalmic Applications (Historical Research Context)

Glycerol infusion and ingestion have been used in research settings for almost 60 years, with widespread clinical use between 1961 and 1980 in the treatment of cerebral oedema resulting from acute ischaemic stroke, intraocular hypertension (glaucoma), intracranial hypertension, postural syncope, and improved rehydration during acute gastrointestinal disease. These applications exploited the osmotic properties of glycerol; however, they are largely historical and do not reflect current standard-of-care practices.

7. Common Forms and Preparations as a Supplement

Glycerol is available as a liquid dietary supplement. It is also added to many foods, drinks, cosmetics, and medicines. Glycerol is now commercially available and marketed as a sport supplement to be ingested with water or sports drinks. It is also found as an ingredient in various food products: in food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener, and may help preserve foods. It is also used as a filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods (e.g., cookies) and as a thickening agent in liqueurs.

Glycerol is used in a variety of food and drink products, including various beverages, energy bars, cake, icings, soft candies, chewing gum, condiments, creams, diet foods, dried fruits, fondant, fudge, and marshmallows.

8. Dosages Reported in Studies

• Although the suggested dosage of glycerol depends on body size and varies between manufacturers, 1 g/kg body weight with an additional 1.5 L fluid taken 60 to 120 minutes before competition is standard. Some test subjects reported feeling bloated or nauseated after ingesting glycerol.
• When glycerol is ingested or infused at doses greater than 1.0 g/kg bodyweight, serum concentrations can increase to approximately 20 mmol/L, resulting in more than a 10 mOsmol/kg increase in serum osmolality.
• Increases in total body water by an additional 250–660 mL have been reported after 2–2.5 hours when 21–26 ml/kg bodyweight of fluid combined with 0.9–1.5 g glycerol/kg bodyweight were ingested.
• A dose of 1 g/kg body mass of glycerol plus 20 ml/kg body mass of water was used in studies demonstrating decreases in urine volume, heart rate, and rectal temperature in endurance athletes.
• According to one reviewed source, glycerol is well tolerated and safe at an oral dosage of 1 g/kg of body weight every 6 hours.
• A 2024 randomized crossover clinical trial was conducted with 30 trained runners (15 men, 15 women) across three sessions, examining glycerol's effects on running economy.

9. Safety Considerations and Adverse Effects

Glycerin's safety has been confirmed by multiple global health authorities, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Some people drink glycerol to help prevent dehydration from a workout and improve physical performance, but its benefits for these uses are not well defined. Common side effects include bloating, nausea, and headache.

Children are at higher risk for serious side effects from oral glycerol. Topical products that contain glycerol are usually well tolerated and may help improve the appearance of the skin and hair.

The mean corpuscular volume remained unchanged and there was no evidence of hemolysis in studies evaluating glycerol administration at sports-supplementation doses.

Although glycerol supplementation resulted in a statistically significant increase in body mass (approximately 1.4 kg on average) due to fluid retention, this did not impair running economy and therefore should not be a concern for athletes or practitioners considering this strategy.

Note on banned substance status: Glycerol was added to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list due to its plasma-expanding properties. Athletes competing under WADA jurisdiction should verify current status before use, as regulations change periodically.

---

Summary of Evidence Strength

The following table-equivalent overview characterizes the quality of available evidence for the health applications discussed:

• Propylene glycol as a food additive (safety): Strong regulatory evidence. Both EFSA Panels concluded that the potential exposure to propane-1,2-diol was several orders of magnitude below the ADI and thus not of toxicological concern. Multiple independent regulatory bodies (FDA, EFSA, JECFA, EMA) have conducted systematic reviews confirming safety at food-use levels.
• Propylene glycol as a health-promoting supplement: No evidence. It is not used or evaluated as an active supplement ingredient for health promotion.
• Glycerol for exercise hyperhydration and thermoregulation: Preliminary to moderate evidence; results are mixed. Multiple small randomized controlled trials and crossover studies suggest possible benefits under heat stress, but results are equivocal across studies with methodological heterogeneity.
• Glycerol for clinical neurological/ophthalmic conditions: Historical evidence, largely obsolete in modern clinical practice. Primarily research-era clinical data from the 1960s–1980s.
• Glycerol safety at supplement doses: Generally well characterized. Adverse effects at standard supplementation doses are typically mild (bloating, nausea, headache); serious effects are not expected at 1 g/kg oral doses in healthy adults.

References

• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) / NCBI: Toxicological Profile for Propylene Glycol — Health Effects
• EFSA ANS Panel: Re-evaluation of propane-1,2-diol (E 1520) as a food additive — EFSA Journal 2018
• Re-evaluation of propane-1,2-diol (E 1520) as a food additive — PubMed
• Refined exposure assessment of polyethylene glycol (E 1521) from its use as a food additive — PMC
• EMA: Propylene Glycol Used as an Excipient — European Medicines Agency Report
• Yu DK et al.: Pharmacokinetics of propylene glycol in humans during multiple dosing regimens — J Pharm Sci 1985
• Severe Lactic Acidosis from Iatrogenic Propylene Glycol Overdose — PMC
• Lewis AS et al.: Considerations for deriving a safe intake of propylene glycol — Food Chem Toxicol 2024
• Tiered intake assessment for propylene glycol in beverages — Food Additives & Contaminants 2025
• WHO INCHEM: Propylene Glycol (PIM 443)
• Robergs RA, Griffin SE: Glycerol. Biochemistry, pharmacokinetics and clinical and practical applications — Sports Med 1998
• The Effect of Glycerol Supplements on Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance of Athletes and Sedentary Subjects — PMC
• Effects of pre-exercise glycerol supplementation on dehydration, metabolic, kinematic, and thermographic variables in international race walkers — PMC 2024
• Frontiers in Nutrition: Effects of glycerol hyperhydration on running economy of long-distance runners: a randomized crossover clinical trial — 2025
• Hyperhydrating with glycerol: implications for athletic performance — PubMed 1999
• Glycerol — Wikipedia (for structural/production overview cross-referenced against primary sources)
• American Chemical Society: Glycerol — Molecule of the Week
• Effect of Dietary Supplementation of Glycerol Monolaurate — Animals 2024 (PMC)
• Hyperhydrating with Glycerol: Implications for Athletic Performance — Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1999
• Exploring the Impact of Developmental Clearance Saturation on Propylene Glycol Exposure — PMC 2025