Gelidiella acerosa

Identity and Taxonomy

Scientific Name and Classification

Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskål) Feldmann & Hamel is a marine red macroalga formally described and reclassified in its current combination in 1934. The species authority is Feldmann & Hamel (1934), who published the reclassification in Revue Générale de Botanique. The basionym is Fucus acerosus Forsskål (1775), originally described from the Red Sea coast of Yemen. The species epithet acerosa is derived from the Latin adjective meaning "needle-shaped."

Its full taxonomic placement is: Kingdom Eukaryota; Phylum Rhodophyta; Class Florideophyceae; Subclass Rhodymeniophycidae; Order Gelidiales; Family Gelidiellaceae; Genus Gelidiella. Gelidiella is a genus of red algae (phylum Rhodophyta) comprising approximately 22 species worldwide, mostly tropical and subtropical, and is now united with Gelidium in the single order Gelidiales.

Morphology and Physical Description

This is a marine species whose thallus ranges in colour from yellow to dark red, is cartilaginous in texture, and bears decumbent and erect terete (cylindrical) axes up to 2 mm in diameter. The family Gelidiellaceae to which it belongs is notable for being a small family of agarophytic red algae containing five genera, characterised by the lack of hyphae and the lack of sexual reproduction, with two kinds of tetrasporangial sori — the acerosa-type and the pannosa-type.

Global Distribution and Habitat

Gelidiella acerosa is found worldwide, from Europe, North America, Central America, and South America, through the Atlantic Islands, Africa, Indian Ocean islands, Southwest Asia, Asia (including China, Japan, and Taiwan), Southeast Asia (including Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, and Indonesia), Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.

Gelidiella acerosa is found in the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, growing at depths of 0–47 metres. It inhabits shallow waters of the intertidal and upper subtidal zones, growing in exposed or shaded areas and attaching to calcareous substrates such as rocks covered by crustose algae, coralline rocks, and sandstones or shells of molluscs. It is also found in tide pools where water temperature, pH, salinity, and degree of exposure to air fluctuate considerably with tidal action.

Common Names and Vernacular Designations

The species is commonly referred to as a red alga, agarophyte, or red seaweed. In India it is commonly known by regional names; in Tamil-speaking coastal communities of the Gulf of Mannar region it is known as Marekozhudu. In the scientific literature it is frequently referred to simply as "agar seaweed" or "agarophyte" in recognition of its primary commercial application.

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

The alga is used in several forms. It is used in the production of fine-quality agar worldwide and is applied in pharmaceuticals, food, and paint industries. In research settings, the seaweed has been extracted using a range of solvents to isolate bioactive fractions. The algae has been subjected to sequential extraction with solvents including hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, methanol, and water. In broader use, Gelidiella acerosa has been employed as a gelling agent to make jellies, as a calorie-free culinary ingredient, as an antioxidant for treating reactive-oxygen-species-mediated diseases, and as a post-coital contraceptive.

Industrial and Agricultural Importance

Agar Production

Gelidiella acerosa (Gelidiaceae) is the main source of agar in India. More specifically, in India, food-grade agar is produced from Gracilaria edulis while bacteriological-grade agar is extracted from Gelidiella acerosa. G. acerosa is the principal source of raw material for production of pharmaceutical-grade agar in India, with an average of 450 dry tonnes per year harvested during the period from 2003 to 2012 from wild stocks along the Gulf of Mannar coast.

The best-quality agar is produced by G. acerosa occurring in the Gulf of Mannar region on the southeast coast, where gel strengths and viscosities ranged from 500–700 g cm⁻² and 33–45 cP. Agar from the west coast of India showed lower gel strengths of 225–400 g cm⁻² and viscosities of 15–30 cP. Agars obtained from G. acerosa collected from the southeast coast have been found suitable for bacterial culture and molecular biology. The continuous harvesting of natural stocks has been a growing concern for long-term sustainability, making it imperative to augment this economically important resource through sustainable cultivation practices using elite germplasm sourced either from natural stocks or from in vitro tissue cultures.

Traditional and Historical Use

Southeast Asian Ethnobotanical Records

Documented ethnobotanical use of G. acerosa is concentrated in coastal communities of the Philippines and other parts of Southeast Asia. Locals in the eastern Sorsogon region of the Philippines have interacted with seaweeds for generations, though formal ethnobotanical records had long been absent. A published study on the ethnobotany of this region documented traditional knowledge of seaweed use among local communities. Vernacular names and modes of preparation were recorded for 12 identified species of culinary and medicinal importance, of which 10 were eaten and three were used therapeutically; based on ethnobotanical indices, Gelidiella acerosa was among the most important seaweeds in this community.

In the Ilocos Norte region of the Philippines, traditional seaweed medicines have been in use for generations; 34 seaweed species were traditionally perceived as medicinal for eight categories of traditional health indications, with almost 80% being edible. Gelidiella acerosa was among those used primarily for digestive, pulmonary, and glandular-related complaints.

South Asian and Ayurvedic Traditions

Gelidiella acerosa is a species of red algae found predominantly along tropical and subtropical coasts and has historically played a role in traditional medicine particularly in regions of Asia and the Indian Ocean, where its gelatinous texture, owing to its high agar content, made it a popular base for soothing remedies and health-promoting foods.

Sri Lanka: Contraceptive Use

One of the most specifically documented traditional uses of G. acerosa relates to reproductive health. Premakumara et al. (1995) reported the post-coital contraceptive activity of the crude extract of Sri Lankan marine red alga Gelidiella acerosa. This traditional use subsequently prompted formal phytochemical and pharmacological investigation. A sphingosine derivative isolated from the hexane fraction of G. acerosa was shown to have non-steroidal, anti-progesterone contragestative activity (Premakumara et al., 1996), and human sperm motility-stimulating activity has been reported from a sulfono-glycolipid isolated from the same alga.

Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Phytochemical Profile

Gelidiella acerosa is reported to possess a variety of phytoconstituents including flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, proteins, sulfated polysaccharides, sulfonoglycolipids, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, and phenols. Because it has been reported to contain high percentages of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, polysaccharides, phenols, and flavonoids, it has shown wide applications in the pharmaceutical industry.

Agar and Sulfated Polysaccharides

The predominant structural and bioactive macromolecule of G. acerosa is agar, a sulfated galactan-based polysaccharide. A specific sulfated polysaccharide, designated GaSP, has been isolated and characterised in detail. GaSP was obtained through enzymatic extraction and subjected to chemical characterisation by HPSEC, elemental microanalysis, FT-IR, and NMR spectroscopy. FT-IR and NMR demonstrated that GaSP is a sulfated agaran, with a peak molar mass of 284.8 kDa and a degree of sulfation of 0.63. Biological effects of sulfated galactans are closely associated with their structural hemiester sulfate groups, which play a paramount role in molecular recognition, cell development, and cell–cell interactions.

Terpenoids

GC-MS analysis of the benzene extract of G. acerosa identified a total of 24 compounds, consisting of a complex mixture of monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons; major compounds detected included 5-Amino-2-methoxyphenol, Eicosane, 2-Pentadecanone-6,10,14-trimethyl-, Phytol, and Lanosta-7,9(11)-diene-3a,18,20-triol. Preliminary phytochemical analysis coupled with GC-MS illustrates that the benzene extract possesses a high amount of terpenoids, which could be the reason for its potential cholinesterase inhibitory activity.

LC-HRMS Metabolomic Profiling

A 2025 study using liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and molecular networking provided the most comprehensive metabolomic profile of the species to date. In total, nine dereplicated compounds were identified in Gelidiella acerosa: 11-Deoxyprostaglandin, Diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserines (DGTS, two forms), Glycochenodeoxy acid, Lysophosphatidylcholine, Pheophorbide A, Pyropheophorbide A, a dihydrochromone flavonoid, and Polyporic acid — compounds typically classified as fatty acids, lipids, terpenoids, alkaloids, shikimates, and phenylpropanoids.

Sulfonoglycolipids and Sphingosine Derivatives

A sulfonoglycolipid isolated from Sri Lankan G. acerosa demonstrated human sperm motility-stimulating activity, as reported in Asian Journal of Andrology (2001). A sphingosine derivative isolated from the hexane fraction showed non-steroidal, anti-progesterone contragestative activity.

Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

1. Cardiovascular System: Anticoagulant, Antiplatelet, and Antithrombotic Effects

The most mechanistically characterised bioactivity of G. acerosa relates to its sulfated polysaccharide fraction (GaSP) and its effects on the coagulation cascade.

Study type: Preclinical (in vitro and animal model)
Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate — no human clinical trials.

The GaSP anticoagulant activity was investigated through activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and prothrombin time (PT) tests, and platelet aggregation was assessed by turbidimetry; antithrombotic and haemorrhagic activities were evaluated using venous thrombosis and haemorrhagic tendency models. The molecule prolonged coagulation time 2.1-fold and inhibited platelet aggregation by 45%; it further showed a significant dose-dependent antithrombotic effect of 40%, 64%, and 80% at 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, respectively, without causing haemorrhage.

These findings are entirely preclinical. No human clinical trials evaluating GaSP or any G. acerosa extract for cardiovascular endpoints have been published to date. The antithrombotic effect without haemorrhagic activity in animal models is noteworthy, but translation to human use cannot be established from current evidence.

2. Nervous System: Neuroprotection and Anticholinesterase Activity (Alzheimer's Disease Research)

Several preclinical studies have investigated the neuroprotective properties of G. acerosa, with particular focus on Alzheimer's disease-related pathology.

Study type: In vitro (cell culture) and in vivo (rodent) models
Evidence strength: Preliminary — no human clinical evidence exists.

Anticholinesterase activity (2012 study): Researchers at Alagappa University, Tamil Nadu, investigated the effect of various solvent extracts of Gelidiella acerosa on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activities using spectrophotometric methods. At a concentration of 487.80 μg/mL, the benzene extract showed significant (P < 0.05) inhibitory activity against both AChE and BuChE, with percentage inhibitions of 54.18 ± 5.65% (IC₅₀ = 434.61 ± 26.53 μg/mL) and 78.43 ± 0% (IC₅₀ = 163.01 ± 85.35 μg/mL), respectively; the mode of inhibition was competitive for AChE and uncompetitive for BuChE. For comparison, donepezil (positive control) showed significantly higher inhibition of 91.57 ± 2.41% with an IC₅₀ of −7.266 ± 0.0065 μg/mL. The inhibitory activity of G. acerosa extracts was thus substantially weaker than the approved pharmaceutical.

PC12 cell model (2018/2019 study): Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder with multiple pathological consequences including oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, cholinergic deficit, amyloid plaques, and tangles; therefore, drugs with multiple targets were considered potentially effective for its treatment. The antioxidative effect of G. acerosa was evaluated by monitoring levels of antioxidant enzymes; protection against reactive-oxygen-species-induced damage was assessed by measurement of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl content, DCFH-DA fluorescence, and nitric oxide production; cholinesterase inhibitory activity was also evaluated; and antiapoptotic activity was verified by caspase-3 activity.

In vivo rodent model: A study published in PMC investigated the multipotent neuroprotective action of the marine red macroalga Gelidiella acerosa (Forsskål) Feldmann & Hamel (Gelidiellaceae) in Swiss Albino mice. The study referenced in PubMed (PMID 29958039) evaluated neuroprotective effects against Aβ 25–35 peptide-induced toxicity in PC12 cells, an in vitro neuronal model, finding activity in multiple protective pathways.

All evidence in this area is preclinical. No randomised controlled trials or observational studies in human subjects exist for any neurological endpoint.

3. Oncology: Anticancer and Antiproliferative Activity

Gelidiella acerosa has been reported to possess pharmacological activities including anticancer, cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticholinesterase, antifertility, and anticoagulation activities. The anticancer evidence is exclusively preclinical.

Lung adenocarcinoma (A549 cell line) — 2018 PMC study: This study explored the efficacy of the red alga Gelidiella acerosa on inhibition of cell proliferation, migration, and expression of cell survival genes in the lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549. The outcomes showed inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell migration and colonisation by the crude extract; protein expression analysis showed activation of caspase-3 and pro-apoptotic protein Bax, accompanied by decreased expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL; subsequent activation of GSK3β and downregulation of PI3K and Akt were observed; and decreased expression of MMP2 correlated with antimetastatic activity. In vivo studies showed an inhibition of tumour growth by the G. acerosa extract (GAE) in a zebrafish tumour model. At the cellular level, MTT assay showed that GAE exerted growth inhibitory activity in A549 cells in a concentration-dependent way, with a concentration of 1.5 mg/mL inducing 50% cell death (IC₅₀).

NFκB-mediated anti-inflammatory activity in lung cancer (2021 study): A study evaluated the effect of compounds present in the ethyl acetate extract of Gelidiella acerosa on inflammation and antioxidant enzymes in lung cancer under in silico and in vitro conditions; in silico analysis showed that the phytoconstituents inhibit the IKBα-NFκB-p65-p50 complex in a manner similar to doxorubicin and dexamethasone. Similarly, G. acerosa treatment enhanced the efficiency of antioxidant enzymes peroxidases and superoxide dismutase in A549 cells, and in vitro analysis showed that it decreased activation of NFκB and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines while upregulating expression of IL-10.

Apoptosis via Bax/Bcl-2 regulation (2020 ScienceDirect study): Extracts were analysed for phytochemical composition and antiproliferative activity by MTT assay in A549 cells; among the extracts analysed, the ethyl acetate extract most effectively inhibited proliferation of A549 cells.

Evidence strength: All anticancer studies are in vitro cell-line and zebrafish model investigations. No clinical trials in human cancer patients exist. Findings are early-stage and exploratory.

4. Antioxidant Activity

Among various extracts tested, the methanolic extract of Gelidiella acerosa exhibited the highest percentage of free radical scavenging activity (68.42%) by in vitro DPPH assay, comparable to the standard ascorbic acid (76.55%).

A study published in BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2008) found that among 10 edible seaweeds tested from the Tamil Nadu coast of India, Gelidiella acerosa had the highest antioxidant activity. Quantitative analysis of total phenolic content indicated that Gelidiella acerosa had high phenolic content, which correlated with its antioxidant activity.

A further in vitro study investigated cellular antioxidant protection: antioxidants present in Gelidiella acerosa were shown to alleviate 2,3,7,8-TCDD-mediated toxicity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in vitro study).

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No human studies have evaluated antioxidant outcomes.

5. Anti-inflammatory Activity

Methanolic extract of G. acerosa possessed the highest anti-inflammatory potential, followed by ethyl acetate and hexane extracts, in both the carrageenan-induced paw oedema model and the cotton-pellet-induced granuloma model in animals, with results significant at P < 0.001.

Evidence strength: Animal model data only. No human clinical trials exist. The signal from animal models is consistent across multiple studies but cannot be extrapolated directly to humans.

6. Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

Studies on the alga revealed antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumour properties of the algal extract. In the area of antifungal activity, one study was the first report of the synthesis of highly stable silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using commonly available marine alga Gelidiella acerosa, investigating their biological synthesis and antifungal activity. The antifungal effects of these nanoparticles were studied against Humicola insolens, Fusarium dimerum, Mucor indicus, and Trichoderma reesei.

Regarding larvicidal (mosquito) activity, after 24 hours of exposure, G. acerosa-AgNPs demonstrated significant larvicidal effects on Culex quinquefasciatus 4th instar larvae (LC₅₀ = 26.95 μg mL⁻¹; LC₉₀ = 38.27 μg mL⁻¹); substantial activity was also seen against Anopheles stephensi larvae, and high mortality was caused in Aedes aegypti larvae (LC₅₀ = 39.34 μg mL⁻¹; LC₉₀ = 73.01 μg mL⁻¹).

Evidence strength: In vitro and laboratory-scale. No clinical or field-trial data in human health contexts.

7. Reproductive Biology: Contragestive and Fertility Effects

This is among the most pharmacologically specific areas of investigation for G. acerosa. Premakumara GAS, Ratnasooriya WD, and Tillekeratne LMV published on the isolation of a non-steroidal contragestative agent from Sri Lankan marine red alga Gelidiella acerosa in the journal Contraception (1996, 54(6):379–383). The post-coital contraceptive activity of crude extracts of Sri Lankan G. acerosa was also separately documented by Ratnasooriya, Premakumara, and Tillekeratne, published in Contraception (1994, 50(3):291–9). These studies represent animal-model-based investigations of reproductive disruption rather than therapeutic benefit, and no human clinical data on reproductive effects have been published.

Evidence strength: Animal studies only. The relevant compounds (sphingosine derivatives, sulfonoglycolipids) have been chemically characterised but not clinically evaluated.

Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Gelidiella acerosa

• Cardiovascular system: Anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects of sulfated polysaccharide GaSP (preclinical).
• Nervous system: Anticholinesterase activity; neuroprotection against amyloid-beta-induced toxicity (preclinical, in vitro and rodent models).
• Oncology: Antiproliferative activity in lung adenocarcinoma cell lines; apoptosis induction via Bax/Bcl-2 and PI3K/Akt pathways (preclinical).
• Immune and oxidative-stress systems: Free radical scavenging; cytoprotection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in vitro).
• Inflammatory pathways: Inhibition of NFκB cascade; reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines; upregulation of IL-10 (in vitro and animal models).
• Reproductive system: Non-steroidal contragestative activity; human sperm motility modulation (animal models and in vitro).
• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use as a demulcent and laxative food ingredient attributable to high dietary fibre (agar) content; no controlled clinical evidence.
• Infectious disease/vector control: Larvicidal activity of algae-derived silver nanoparticles against mosquito larvae.

Dosage Forms and Concentrations Reported in Studies

No standardised supplement dosage for human use has been established for Gelidiella acerosa in any reviewed pharmacopoeia or regulatory monograph. The following concentrations appear in published experimental studies only and are not clinical recommendations:

• In the anticholinesterase study, the test concentration of the benzene extract was 487.80 μg/mL, with an IC₅₀ against AChE of 434.61 ± 26.53 μg/mL and against BuChE of 163.01 ± 85.35 μg/mL.
• In the lung cancer cell-line study, the MTT assay showed that a concentration of 1.5 mg/mL of G. acerosa extract induced 50% cell death (IC₅₀) in A549 cells.
• In the antithrombotic animal study, the sulfated polysaccharide GaSP showed dose-dependent antithrombotic effects of 40%, 64%, and 80% at 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, respectively, without causing haemorrhage.
• In the mosquito larvicidal study, G. acerosa-derived AgNPs showed effects against Culex quinquefasciatus at LC₅₀ = 26.95 μg mL⁻¹ and LC₉₀ = 38.27 μg mL⁻¹.
• The DPPH free radical scavenging assay used methanolic extract showing 68.42% scavenging activity, compared with ascorbic acid (76.55%).

Safety Considerations

General Safety Profile

No formal toxicological evaluation specifically for Gelidiella acerosa as a dietary supplement has been published in peer-reviewed clinical literature. Preclinical evidence does, however, include some safety-relevant observations.

Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Risk

Sulfated carbohydrates obtained from the red alga Gelidiella acerosa showed anticoagulant, antiplatelet, and antithrombotic properties, revealing the potential of sulfated carbohydrates as therapeutic agents for future pharmaceutical applications. This anticoagulant activity, while pharmacologically potentially useful, represents a safety consideration for individuals taking antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications (e.g., warfarin, aspirin, heparin), as concurrent use of G. acerosa fractions could theoretically potentiate bleeding risk. This concern is extrapolated from preclinical data; no interaction studies in humans exist.

Reproductive and Hormonal Effects

A sphingosine derivative isolated from the hexane fraction of G. acerosa demonstrated non-steroidal anti-progesterone contragestative activity. The existence of a pharmacologically active contragestative compound in the alga is a factual safety-relevant datum for any individual of reproductive age who may consume concentrated extracts of this seaweed. No human data on reproductive hormonal effects exist.

Sub-chronic Toxicological Data

A referenced study (Queiroz et al., 2014, Acta Scientiarum, Biological Sciences, 36(4):393–401) conducted a sub-chronic toxicological study of a sulfated polysaccharidic fraction from G. acerosa alongside its anticoagulant effects, as cited in academic review literature. The specific findings of that sub-chronic toxicology study were not available in accessible full-text form in the sources retrieved.

Evidence Gaps

There are no published human clinical trials, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses evaluating the safety or efficacy of Gelidiella acerosa or its extracts for any therapeutic indication. The alga is not the subject of a WHO monograph, European Medicines Agency (EMA) assessment, EFSA opinion on health claims, or any regulatory approval for therapeutic use in any major jurisdiction. All published bioactivity evidence is preliminary and derived from cell culture and animal model experiments. The gap between existing preclinical data and demonstrated clinical utility is substantial and has not been bridged by clinical research as of the date of this article.

Summary of Evidence

Gelidiella acerosa is a well-characterised marine red alga of considerable industrial importance as an agar source, particularly in India, where it supplies the pharmaceutical-grade agar industry. Its phytochemical diversity — spanning sulfated polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolics, alkaloids, fatty-acid-related lipids, and unique compounds such as sulfonoglycolipids — has attracted significant research interest. Across a range of in vitro and animal-model investigations, extracts and isolated fractions of the alga have demonstrated anticoagulant, antithrombotic, neuroprotective, anticholinesterase, antiproliferative, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. The most mechanistically advanced findings relate to the sulfated polysaccharide GaSP and its cardiovascular effects, and to the terpenoid-rich benzene extract and its anticholinesterase activity. All of this evidence, however, remains at the preclinical stage. No human clinical trials of any design have been conducted for any health application of G. acerosa, and no standardised, clinically validated dosage has been established.

References

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