Fragaria chiloensis

Fragaria chiloensis (Chilean Strawberry / Beach Strawberry)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Names, and Natural Source

1.1 Botanical and Taxonomic Identity

Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Mill., commonly known as the beach strawberry, Chilean strawberry, or coastal strawberry, is one of two species of wild strawberry that were hybridized to create the modern garden strawberry (F. × ananassa), and is native to the Pacific Ocean coasts of North and South America.

This species is an octoploid species (2n = 8× = 56) of the Rosaceae family. All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes; F. chiloensis is octoploid, having eight sets of these chromosomes for a total of 56. These eight genomes pair as four distinct sets, of two different types, with little or no pairing between sets.

The Chilean white strawberry is the maternal progenitor of the widely cultivated strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa Duch., and it can be considered an exotic and promising species for agricultural exploitation, which could, in turn, provide social benefits for Chile.

1.2 Accepted Synonyms

The species has been described under several synonymous names. Accepted synonyms include Fragaria vesca var. chiloensis L. (Sp. Pl.: 495, 1753) and Potentilla chiloensis (L.) Mabb. (Telopea 9: 797, 2002). The epithet "chiloensis" refers to the island of Chiloé in southern Chile. In 1717, the French spy-botanist Amédée-François Frézier initially classified the fruit as Fragaria chiliensis, but this was changed in 1753 to chiloensis following formal botanical nomenclature.

1.3 Subspecies and Geographic Range

The species is classified into four subspecies, primarily distinguished by morphological traits, fruit characteristics, and geographic ranges, as outlined in taxonomic revisions by Staudt in the 1990s: subsp. chiloensis (native to South America, particularly Chile and Argentina; includes forma patagonica restricted to Patagonia with smaller red fruits and adaptations to colder conditions), subsp. lucida (from Alaska to California along the Pacific coast), subsp. pacifica (from California to British Columbia), and subsp. sandwicensis (endemic to Hawaii).

The plant's natural range encompasses the Pacific Ocean coasts of North and South America, and also Hawaii, where it grows mostly on sand beaches above the tidal zone in temperate to warm-temperate regions. Migratory birds are thought to have dispersed F. chiloensis from the Pacific coast of North America to the mountains of Hawaii, Chile, and Argentina.

1.4 Plant Description

It is an evergreen plant growing to 15–30 centimetres (6–12 inches) tall. The relatively thick leaves are glossy green and trifoliate, each leaflet around 5 cm (2 in) long. The stems are covered with long hairs and the leaves sometimes have a dense fringe of hairs. The flowers are white, produced in spring and early summer. The fruit, a strawberry, is edible, red on the surface and white inside. Subsp. chiloensis is noted for its vigorous growth and production of larger fruits, typically white or pinkish and weighing 7–10 g, which contributed to its historical cultivation.

1.5 Common Names and INCI Designations

The species is known as frutilla chilena (Chilean strawberry) or frutilla blanca (white strawberry) in Spanish-speaking South America. The plant was likely cultivated by both the Mapuche and the Huiliche people, whose language, Mapudungun, has specific words for both wild strawberries (llahuen, lahuene, or lahueni) and cultivated strawberries (quellghen). In international ingredient nomenclature (INCI), preparations are listed as Fragaria chiloensis (Strawberry) Fruit, Fragaria chiloensis (Strawberry) Fruit Extract, and Fragaria chiloensis (Strawberry) Seed Oil, among others.

1.6 Common Forms and Preparations

The fruits of Fragaria chiloensis are primarily consumed fresh due to their delicate flavor and texture, and feature prominently in traditional Patagonian cuisine where they are gathered wild and eaten raw or incorporated into jams, jellies, and sweets. In the context of dietary supplement and functional food research, preparations studied include aqueous fruit extracts, polyphenol-enriched extracts (PEEs) obtained using Amberlite XAD-7 resin, and methanol/formic acid extracts of the fruit, leaves, and rhizomes. Comparative analyses of methanol extracts from fruits, rhizomes, and leaves of the Chilean white strawberry have been performed by means of reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC–DAD and HPLC–ESI-MS). Dried fruit preparations and preparations of the leaves as infusions have also been documented in traditional contexts.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Pre-Columbian and Indigenous South American Use

The strawberry was cultivated in South America long before the Spanish arrived on the continent. Native Fragaria chiloensis L. was domesticated over 1,000 years ago by the Picunches in central Chile.

The leaves and fruits of the Chilean strawberry have been used as food and medicine by the Mapuche aborigines in the Andean region of Chile and Argentina, and were also gathered by the extinct Kawashkar culture in the channels and islands of Chilean Patagonia.

Mapuche and Picunche people cultivated this plant, and the fruit was consumed as a nutritive food or fermented drink in ceremonial rites. Archaeological evidence corroborates this practice: results from studies of Mocha Island show the production of fermented beverages at least between A.D. 1000 and 1300, with both cultivated and wild species used for this purpose, including Aristotelia chilensis (maqui), Zea mays (maize), and possibly Fragaria chiloensis (wild strawberry).

The Mapuche people cultivated this plant as a nutritive food, consumed as fresh or dried fruit or prepared for medicinal purposes.

2.2 Indigenous North American Use

Indigenous groups in the Pacific Northwest, including the Makah, Quileute, and Quinault tribes, have long harvested the fruits as a food source, eating them raw during summer gatherings. Beyond the fruits, various plant parts were used in indigenous practices for both nutritional and remedial purposes; for instance, the Quileute chewed leaves and applied them as poultices to treat burns, while infusions of leaves and roots served as teas.

2.3 European Introduction and Early Documentation

In 1712, Amédée-François Frézier was sent by King Louis XIV to study the defenses of the Spanish colonies in South America. Although a lieutenant colonel of Army Intelligence, he pretended to be a merchant or trader to spy on Spanish fortifications. But Frézier recorded more than just defenses — he also wrote extensively about indigenous customs and botany, including the strawberry. He returned to Marseille in 1714, bringing strawberry specimens, with 5 of the 12 plants surviving the journey to France.

The use of native berries as food and medicine by the ancient hunter-gatherer societies can be traced back to the early occupation of Patagonia. The same species used in prehistoric times are still used as food by the contemporary population in this area.

2.4 Traditional Medicinal Uses

Although strawberries have been primarily valued for their flavor, medicinal claims have been acknowledged for centuries. The plant's traditional medicinal applications encompass its leaves and fruit. The leaves were eaten raw or cooked and used as a tea substitute; the root has been used as a coffee substitute in India. Plants used in traditional Mapuche medicine were used to treat wounds and associated infections, as well as wounds, wound infections, and/or inflammatory ailments. Leaves are used for teas, the preferred preparation form in Mapuche traditional medicine.

In Chilean tradition, the species also bore cultural significance beyond mere nutrition. At the beginning of the Spanish invasion of Wallmapu in 1542, the first Spanish colonizer of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia, coined a new word to describe the New World's fruit. While in European Spanish the word for strawberry was and is fresa, Valdivia referred to the Chilean strawberry as a frutilla (Spanish for "little fruit"), a word that remains the term used for strawberry across much of South America.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Phytochemical Profile

The phytochemicals identified in Fragaria chiloensis include a wide array of phenolics of different structural skeletons. Recent studies have started to disclose the chemical composition of the native fruit, the secondary metabolite occurrence and distribution in different plant parts, as well as the biological activity of the main fruit constituents.

3.2 Polyphenols: Tannins and Ellagic Acid Derivatives

The main phenolics in the white strawberry are ellagic acid or hexahydroxydiphenolic acid-based hydrolysable tannins and procyanidins, as well as flavonoid glycosides from quercetin and kaempferol.

For the first time, some 18 phenolic compounds were tentatively identified in rhizomes and 18 in leaves of the Chilean strawberry; the products were mainly procyanidins, ellagitannins, ellagic acid, and flavonol derivatives.

The general trend in the plant is the accumulation of condensed tannins of increasing molecular weight in the rhizomes, while the leaf contains mainly hydrolysable tannins and flavonoids.

Identified compounds in F. chiloensis fruits include anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin hexoside, cyanidin malonyl hexoside, pelargonidin-malonyl hexoside), ellagitannins (ellagic acid hexoside, pentoside, rhamnoside), proanthocyanidin dimers, epicatechin, and flavonols (quercetin derivatives).

The phenolic constituents in native strawberry species were mainly proanthocyanidins, hydrolysable tannins, anthocyanins, and flavonol glycosides. In both native strawberry species, the main flavonol glycoside was quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, and the minor anthocyanins identified were cyanidin-malonyl-glucoside and pelargonidin-malonyl-glucoside.

3.3 Distribution of Phenolics Across Plant Parts

Simirgiotis and Schmeda-Hirschmann (2010) compared the antioxidant activity of fruits, leaves, and rhizomes, showing that the white fruits from F. chiloensis f. chiloensis presented the highest scavenging activity against the superoxide anion. The authors associated the composition of polyphenols present in the fruit to this activity, mainly ellagic acid and flavonoids.

The different extracts of the native strawberry presented antioxidant activity which was close to that exhibited by the white fruits. The rhizomes and leaves proved to be a good source of phenolic antioxidants.

Previous studies also showed that the significant concentration of cyanidin-derived pigment in the white strawberry F. chiloensis is found in the achenes and not in the fruit, because the achenes are the most colored part of the fruit.

3.4 Antioxidant Potency by Plant Part

In standardized antioxidant assays using methanol:formic acid (99:1 v/v) extraction: Fragaria chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. chiloensis fruits showed DPPH IC₅₀ = 38.7 mg/L (SAS: 79.3%); leaves showed DPPH IC₅₀ = 49.4 mg/L (SAS: 67.60%); and rhizomes showed DPPH IC₅₀ = 64.8 mg/L (SAS: 55%). The responsible compounds in all parts were aglycone and glycosylated ellagic acid derivatives.

3.5 Other Notable Constituents

In Patagonian populations of Fragaria chiloensis, phytochemical profiling found four anthocyanins, nine ellagitannins, two proanthocyanidin dimers, one flavan-3-ol, and five flavonols. The fruit also contains the flavonol quercetin 3-O-glucoside, which has been identified as an important contributor to its antioxidant profile. Simirgiotis et al. (2009) reported the antioxidant activity of different fractions obtained from F. chiloensis f. chiloensis, showing that the best antioxidant capacity was associated with the content of quercetin-3-glucoside, ellagic acid, cyanidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-glucoside.

The fruits contain salicylic acid.

3.6 Protein Constituents of Biochemical Interest

A cysteine protease inhibitor, cystatin FchCYS1, was isolated in 2018 from Fragaria chiloensis. While its biomedical significance has not been fully established, such inhibitors are of research interest in the context of plant defense mechanisms and potential pharmacological applications.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Free Radical Scavenging

White Chilean strawberries are a good source of phenolic antioxidants. Furthermore, in vitro studies have shown that white Chilean strawberry fruit has a high free radical scavenging effect. The primary mechanism involves the donation of hydrogen atoms or electrons from phenolic hydroxyl groups to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS). These compounds are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and vasoprotective properties. Flavonols possess the ability to scavenge free radicals, inhibit lipid peroxidation, and modulate the activity of various enzymes involved in cellular defense mechanisms.

4.2 Enzyme Inhibition Associated with Metabolic Syndrome

The fruit constituents show a strong antioxidant and inhibitory effect towards enzymes associated with metabolic syndrome, including α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase. These enzyme-inhibitory activities are relevant to postprandial glycemia and lipid absorption. Specifically, Fragaria displayed better activity against α-glucosidase and lipase compared to Berberis species in one comparative study.

4.3 Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Some berry constituents exert anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. In animal studies, results showed a significant decrease of TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha), IL-1β, and IL-6 (interleukin 6) levels. The proposed responsible mechanism involves the action on AMPK (5′ AMP-activated protein kinase) related pathways, specifically the increment in phosphorylated AMPK expression.

4.4 Antiplatelet Activity

Comparative evaluations of antiplatelet effects of aqueous extracts from different mature strawberry fruits have been performed, and the results indicate that the protective effect of fruit extracts towards platelet aggregation was higher in F. vesca and F. chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. patagonica. This activity is attributed primarily to the polyphenol content.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Application

5.1 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence type: In vitro; limited in vivo (animal)

Several studies have reported the antioxidant capacity of the fruit extracts from the white and red native strawberries. The assays included DPPH, FRAP, TEAC, CUPRAC, ORAC, the scavenging of the superoxide anion, and the inhibition of lipid peroxidation of red blood cells. Cheel et al. (2005) evaluated the crude, EtOAc, and Amberlite-retained extracts in three antioxidant assays, namely, DPPH, superoxide anion scavenging, and inhibition of lipid peroxidation.

Cheel et al. (2007) showed that the antioxidant activity of F. chiloensis f. patagonica was due to an additive effect between the polyphenols from thalamus and achenes, while in F. chiloensis f. chiloensis, the achenes showed the highest antioxidant capacity, which was attributed to their high anthocyanin content.

For F. chiloensis methanolic extracts, the best antioxidant activity was observed for fruits.

Despite the potential of this fruit as an antioxidant, there is a lack of information regarding the in vivo effects on the oxidative status in humans and animal models. The totality of antioxidant evidence remains in vitro with limited animal data; no clinical trials in humans have been published specifically measuring oxidative biomarkers in response to F. chiloensis supplementation.

5.2 Anti-Inflammatory Effects

Evidence type: In vitro and animal (rodent); no human clinical trials identified

Molinett et al. proved the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effect of aqueous F. chiloensis fruit extracts on LPS-induced liver injury in rats.

More specifically, in vivo experiments with Sprague–Dawley rats showed that dietary supplementation with the aqueous extract of the native Chilean white strawberry for ten days before a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge at a dose of 4 g kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ diminished the induced damage in the liver. LPS challenge increased inflammatory markers, and oral administration of F. chiloensis before the LPS challenge was able to reduce the increment of serum cytokines to a comparable level to non-challenged animals.

This report, considering the dietary supplementation of rats with a white Chilean aqueous extract, concluded that intakes of Chilean white strawberry fruit favor the normalization of oxidative and inflammatory responses after liver injury induced by LPS.

These anti-inflammatory findings are preliminary and exclusively from pre-clinical models. No randomized controlled trials in human subjects have been conducted to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of F. chiloensis specifically.

5.3 Metabolic Syndrome — Enzyme Inhibition (α-Glucosidase, α-Amylase, Lipase)

Evidence type: In vitro; gastrointestinal digestion simulation; no human trials identified

After simulated gastrointestinal digestion (GID), the polyphenol-enriched extract (PEE) significantly inhibited α-glucosidase with an IC₅₀ value of 3.13 μg/mL. The inhibition of pancreatic lipase was reduced by 95% after GID. All PEEs did not show inhibitory effect towards α-amylase throughout GID.

In the same way, the PEEs did not significantly protect human gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells against H₂O₂-induced stress. Thirty-eight compounds were tentatively identified in the non-digested PEE. The compounds that were most affected by simulated GID were simple phenolics; after GID, only 33 and 25 compounds were detected in the gastric and intestinal steps, respectively. These results evidence the changes elicited by GID on the bioactivity and polyphenolic composition of the white strawberry.

This in vitro digestion study indicates that bioavailability of active compounds may be substantially altered during gastrointestinal processing, particularly for lipase inhibition. Without human pharmacokinetic or clinical metabolic studies, the translational relevance of these in vitro enzyme inhibition results is uncertain.

5.4 Antiplatelet and Cardiovascular Effects

Evidence type: In vitro (aqueous extract, platelet aggregation assay); no human trials identified

Comparative evaluations of antiplatelet effects of aqueous extracts from different mature strawberry fruits showed that the protective effect of fruit extracts towards platelet aggregation was higher in F. vesca and F. chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. patagonica. The mechanism was not elucidated in detail in available sources. This finding remains at the in vitro level and requires clinical corroboration.

5.5 Hepatoprotective Effects

Evidence type: Animal (rodent); no human trials identified

The hepatoprotective effect of F. chiloensis aqueous fruit extract has been studied in a Sprague–Dawley rat model at a dose of 4 g kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ for ten days before an LPS challenge, which diminished the induced damage in the liver. Results showed a significant decrease of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels, with the proposed mechanism involving AMPK-related pathways. No parallel human clinical trial exists for this application.

5.6 Gastrointestinal Digestion and Bioavailability

Evidence type: In vitro digestion simulation

Changes in composition and bioactivity after simulated gastric and intestinal digestion, as well as colonic fermentation, have been reported in some Patagonian species including F. chiloensis. These studies demonstrate that polyphenol profiles and bioactivities of F. chiloensis extracts are significantly modified by digestive conditions, which underscores the need for in vivo and clinical studies to validate extrapolation of in vitro results to human health.

5.7 Overall Evidence Assessment

Emerging research provides substantial evidence by which to classify Chilean strawberries as a functional food with several preventive and therapeutic health benefits. However, this characterization is primarily based on in vitro data and limited animal studies. As of available literature, no published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or systematic reviews specifically using Fragaria chiloensis as a dietary supplement in human subjects have been identified. The existing body of evidence is thus preliminary and insufficient to establish clinical efficacy for any specific health indication.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Antioxidant/Oxidative Stress: White Chilean strawberries are a good source of phenolic antioxidants, and in vitro studies have shown that white Chilean strawberry fruit has a high free radical scavenging effect.
• Inflammatory Response: Some berry constituents exert anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. Pre-clinical rodent studies also demonstrate suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
• Hepatic / Liver Function: Animal evidence supports protective effects against LPS-induced liver injury via antioxidant and cytokine-suppressive mechanisms.
• Metabolic Syndrome-Associated Enzymes: The fruit constituents show strong antioxidant and inhibitory effect towards enzymes associated with metabolic syndrome, including α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase.
• Cardiovascular / Platelet Function: In vitro evidence suggests the aqueous fruit extract may inhibit platelet aggregation, relevant to cardiovascular risk.
• Nutritional / Functional Food: Patagonian berries are a relevant source of bioactive compounds with several health-promoting properties.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Formal standardized dosing recommendations do not exist in the peer-reviewed literature for Fragaria chiloensis as a dietary supplement. The following dosages and forms appear specifically in the cited research:

• Aqueous fruit extract, oral (rodent study): Dietary supplementation with the aqueous extract of the native Chilean white strawberry for ten days before a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge at a dose of 4 g kg⁻¹ day⁻¹.
• Polyphenol-enriched extract (PEE) — in vitro assay: After simulated GID, the PEE significantly inhibited α-glucosidase with an IC₅₀ value of 3.13 μg/mL.
• DPPH antioxidant assays: Fruit extracts showed IC₅₀ = 38.7 mg/L; leaf extracts showed IC₅₀ = 49.4 mg/L; rhizome extracts showed IC₅₀ = 64.8 mg/L in standardized DPPH assays.

No human clinical dosage has been established or reported in the peer-reviewed literature. Extrapolation of animal dosages to human supplementation doses is not supported by available evidence.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Allergenicity — Fra a 1 Protein and Birch Pollen Cross-Reactivity

Birch pollen allergic patients show cross-reactivity to vegetables and fruits, including strawberries. The Fra a 1 protein is a Bet v 1-homologous protein in strawberry fruits. A specific antibody-based ELISA revealed high variability in Fra a 1 levels within 20 different genotypes ranging from 0.67 to 3.97 µg/g fresh weight.

This cross-reactivity is the reason why more than 70% of the patients with birch pollen allergies in Central and Northern Europe and in North America develop allergies to fruits, nuts, vegetables, and legumes, and about 15–30% of them display allergic reactions after the intake of fresh strawberry fruits. The symptoms are generally mild and in the form of oral allergy syndromes (OAS) coursing with itching and swelling, although in rare occasions systemic urticaria or even anaphylaxis has been reported.

Compared to fresh strawberries, oven and solar-dried fruits contained slightly lower Fra a 1 levels due to thermal treatment during processing. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis demonstrated degradation of recombinant Fra a 1.02 after prolonged (>10 min) thermal treatment at 99°C. This suggests that heat processing may reduce allergenicity.

8.2 Cross-Reactivity with Rosaceae Family

Extensive cross-reactivity occurs among various members of the Rosaceae family, but to date, the amount of cross-reactivity between strawberry and other members of the family has not been fully evaluated. Fra a 1 has a 54–61% and a 77–78% sequence identity with Bet v 1 and the homologous apple allergen Mal d 1, respectively. Cross-reactivity with other plants containing a Bet v 1 homologue is therefore possible. Allergy to Rosaceae fruit is frequently associated with birch pollinosis in central and northern Europe, and with grass pollen allergy in central Spain.

8.3 Salicylate Content

The fruits contain salicylic acid. Individuals with known hypersensitivity to salicylates may need to consider this constituent, though specific data on salicylate levels in F. chiloensis relative to other Fragaria species were not identified in the available literature.

8.4 Absence of Specific Toxicological Data

No formal toxicological studies, maximum tolerated dose studies, or human safety trials were identified specifically for Fragaria chiloensis preparations as a supplement. The animal study conducted at 4 g/kg/day for ten days did not report adverse events, but this cannot be extrapolated to human supplementation scenarios. Comparatively little is known about the chemistry of the native Chilean strawberry, and studies are urgently needed to support the efforts to develop this species as a crop.

8.5 Potential Antiplatelet Interactions

Given the in vitro evidence of platelet aggregation inhibition, the use of concentrated F. chiloensis preparations alongside anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications is a theoretical concern based on mechanistic grounds, though no clinical interaction data have been published.

8.6 Gastrointestinal Stability of Bioactive Compounds

The inhibition of pancreatic lipase was reduced by 95% after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. This raises important questions about the practical bioavailability of claimed active constituents when the fruit is consumed orally, underscoring the need for in vivo pharmacokinetic studies.

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