False flax

False Flax (Camelina sativa): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

1.1 Nomenclature and Taxonomy

False flax is the common English name most frequently applied to Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz, though the species carries a number of other vernacular designations. Known in English as camelina, gold-of-pleasure, false flax, wild flax, linseed dodder, German sesame, and Siberian oilseed, it is a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae, which includes mustard, cabbage, rapeseed, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, and Brussels sprouts. It is not related to true flax, which is in the family Linaceae. The genus Camelina encompasses several species, but the Camelina species, commonly known as false flax, are native to Mediterranean regions of Europe and Asia, and most species of this genus have been little studied, with the exception of Camelina sativa, historically cultivated as an oil plant.

The formal taxonomic binomial is Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. Heinrich Johann Nepomuk von Crantz was the first botanist to use the genus Camelina in his classification works in 1762. Also called gold-of-pleasure, false flax, or linseed dodder, it is an oilseed crop belonging to the tribe Camelineae of the mustard family (Brassicaceae).

1.2 Origin and Natural Distribution

Camelina is native to Northern Europe and to Central Asia, but has been introduced to North America, possibly as a weed in flax imports. The possible centre of origin is located between Ukraine and Russia, where the genetic diversity hotspot has been identified. Archaeological findings of camelina in the central and eastern parts of Europe date from the late Neolithic and early Bronze Ages, and Southeast Europe and Southwest Asia are believed to be the centre of origin of camelina. Camelina is a hardy plant that adapts very well to different types of soil and grows best in cool semi-arid climates.

1.3 Plant Description

As a summer or winter annual plant, camelina grows to heights of 30–120 cm (12–47 in), with branching stems which become woody at maturity. The leaves are alternate on the stem, and lanceolate with a length from 2–8 cm (0.79–3.15 in) and a width of 2–10 mm (0.079–0.394 in). The plant produces small, pale yellow to greenish-yellow flowers, 5–7 mm in diameter, arranged in elongated racemes, followed by pear-shaped silicles containing numerous tiny, pale yellow-brown seeds rich in oil. The weight of 1,000 seeds is in the range of 0.8 to 2.0 grams; the seeds contain 38 to 43% oil and 27% to 32% protein.

1.4 Common Preparations and Product Forms

False flax reaches consumers primarily through its pressed seed oil. Camelina oil is described as a partially refined edible oil extracted from the Camelina sativa plant. Camelina seeds are cleaned, crushed, and pressed; the oil is extracted at temperatures less than 120°C (cold-press technology), with 8–10% of the oil remaining in the meal. Alternatively, during solvent/press extraction, expeller pressing can be done at any temperature below 149°C, and free oil is recovered with crushed seeds further extracted with an organic solvent, leaving less than 1% of oil in the meal. The remaining solid fraction after oil extraction — the meal or cake — is a separate product category used in animal nutrition. Cold-pressed camelina meal contains 35–40% crude protein, 6–12% fat, 6–7% ash, and 41% neutral-detergent fibre. For human use, camelina oil is sold as a culinary oil, a dietary supplement in liquid or capsule form, and as an ingredient in food products such as crackers and enriched foods. False flax has long been grown in Europe and its oil used as a lamp oil until the 18th century; in recent times it has been explored for use in cosmetic and skin care products.

2. Historical and Traditional Use

2.1 Prehistoric and Archaeological Evidence

False flax is among the most ancient cultivated oilseeds in Europe and western Asia, with an archaeological record stretching back thousands of years. Ample archaeological evidence shows it has been grown in Europe for at least 3,000 years. The earliest archaeologic sites where it was found include the Neolithic levels at Auvernier, Switzerland (dated to the second millennium BC), the Chalcolithic level at Pefkakia in Greece (dated to the third millennium BC), and Sucidava-Celei, Romania (circa 2200 BC). Evidence of domesticated C. sativa cultivation in Europe arises toward the end of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age (~1200 BCE); over the course of the Iron Age, camelina cultivation became more prevalent throughout Europe, where it was used for food and fuel.

Among the most important oilseeds in prehistory were flax (Linum usitatissimum), hemp (Cannabis sativa), gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa), and opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Archaeological evidence shows camelina seeds in Bronze and Iron Age settlements across northern Europe, particularly in Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain, where it often coexisted with flax and barley fields. Charred seed conglomerates of Linum usitatissimum (flax) and Camelina sativa (gold of pleasure) were found at Uppåkra 2:25, a Roman Iron Age site in Skåne, southern Sweden.

2.2 Historical Agricultural and Culinary Use

Native to Europe and Central Asia, camelina has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years for its high-quality seed oil, which was once a staple in cooking, lamp fuel, and later lubricants and biofuels. Historically, its oil was used for cooking and fuel, and the meal was fed to livestock; camelina production in Europe and Russia was replaced in large part by canola in the mid-1900s, as canola proved easier to hydrogenate. The name "False Flax" reflects this historical association — camelina was sometimes mistaken for flax due to similar seeds and oil uses.

It remained an important oilseed crop across Europe and western Asia until the mid-20th century, after which cultivation was largely abandoned in favour of oilseed rape and other higher-yielding oilseeds. The oil is registered under the name "Olej rydzowy tradycyjny" as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed product in the European Union and the United Kingdom. In Poland in particular, the oil maintained continuous culinary use through to the modern period under this designation.

2.3 Regulatory and Acceptance History

The regulatory status of camelina oil for human food use differs by jurisdiction. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has accepted the oil as self-affirmed GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status. Camelina oil has been accepted for human consumption in the European Union, with member states such as France approving it since 1998 based on traditional use, and no specific upper intake limits beyond general dietary guidelines.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Fatty Acid Profile of the Oil

The seed oil of false flax is characterised by an exceptionally high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids, with alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3, an omega-3 fatty acid) constituting the dominant fraction. The major components of camelina oil are alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3, approximately 35–45%) and linoleic acid (C18:2, an omega-6 fatty acid, approximately 15–20%). The fatty acid composition of camelina comprises high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as C18:2 and C18:3 fatty acids (52–54%), as well as long-chain fatty acids, such as C20:1 (11–15%) and C22:1 (2–5%) fatty acids. The seed of camelina can contain more than 40% oil, 90% of which is made up of unsaturated fatty acids, including a 30–40% fraction of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), another 15–25% fraction of linoleic acid (18:2n-6), about a 15% fraction of oleic acid and around 15% eicosenoic acid.

Camelina oil is considered a good source of ALA compared to other edible oils; 36 to 40% of its fatty acid content is ALA, an n-3 fatty acid derived from plants. Other components of camelina oil include erucic acid (1–3%) and vitamin E (about 110 mg/100 g). Of note is that the erucic acid content, while present at low levels, has regulatory significance discussed in the safety section below.

3.2 Tocopherols (Vitamin E)

False flax oil is one of the richer plant-derived sources of tocopherols. It contains high contents of antioxidants, namely tocopherols (55.8–76.1 mg/100 g), carotenoids (103–198 mg of carotene/kg), and phytosterols (331–442 mg/100 g). Tocopherol content of camelina is about 700 mg kg^-1. The predominant tocopherol isomer is gamma-tocopherol. Camelina oil is very rich in natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols, which contributes to the highly stable character of the oil, as well as its resistance to oxidation and rancidity. Although its oil has a high degree of unsaturation, it is considerably more stable in comparison with other unsaturated oils such as flax and fish oils, because of a high content of both phenolic substances and tocopherols, which serve as antioxidants.

3.3 Glucosinolates

As a member of the Brassicaceae, camelina contains glucosinolates — sulphur-rich secondary metabolites found across the mustard family. Crucial for the study of camelina is the analysis of its phytochemical compounds, specifically glucosinolates (GLSs), a sulphur-rich class of secondary metabolites widely present in Brassicaceae species. Camelina was found remarkably rich in essential n-3 alpha-linolenic acid (33.32–37.65%) and gamma-tocopherol (532–798 mg/kg) in oil, and glucosinolates (16.39–41.43 µmol/g) in seed. While glucosinolate hydrolysis products (isothiocyanates) have been studied in other Brassicaceae for cancer-preventive properties, the specific contribution of camelina glucosinolates to human health outcomes has not been established in clinical research. The presence of glucosinolates, plant metabolites with adverse health effects at high doses, restricts the use of camelina for human and animal nutrition when present at elevated levels.

3.4 Phytosterols

Camelina sativa seeds are rich in oil (30–49%) and protein (24–31%), and they contain omega-3 acids, omega-6 acids, tocopherols, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds, among others. Phytosterols are structurally similar to cholesterol and are known to compete for intestinal cholesterol absorption. The phytosterol content of camelina oil (331–442 mg/100 g) is considered nutritionally relevant.

3.5 Phenolic Compounds and Flavonoids

Bioactive components like different classes of phenolics, glucosinolates, tocopherols, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polysaccharides, and lignans are reported by researchers in Camelina sativa. Camelina seeds are rich in oil (30% to 49%), containing omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids; in protein (24% to 31%); and in bioactive compounds, such as tocopherols, phytosterols, phenolic compounds, and glucosinolates, which make them of interest for healthy human nutrition. Camelina sativa defatted seed meal (DSM) has a high content of vitexin and naringenin — flavonoids endowed with neuroprotective potential, attested to by their ability to counteract inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

3.6 Protein Content of Seed Meal

Extraction of oil from camelina seeds by mechanical expeller yields a seed meal that consists of approximately 10% residual oil, 45% crude protein, 10% soluble sugars, 13% fibre, 5% minerals, and 10% phytochemical constituents such as glucosinolates, flavonols, lignans, phenolic acids as well as nucleic acids. Among micro-minerals, camelina presents markedly high content of iron (329 µg/g), manganese (40 µg/g), and zinc (69 µg/g).

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Alpha-Linolenic Acid as a Cardiovascular Substrate

The dominant proposed mechanism of action for false flax oil in the context of cardiovascular health runs through its high ALA content. Prior research indicates that alpha-linolenic acid (18:3, n-3; ALA) can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) by improving blood lipids, blood pressure, and hemostatic factors, among others. According to a meta-analysis published in 2020, an increase in the intake of ALA is associated with a decrease in triglycerides (TGs), total cholesterol (TC), low-density cholesterol (LDL), and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL) levels.

At the enzymatic level, ALA can reduce the activity of the limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis, beta-hydroxy beta-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA). Additionally, it can play a role in increasing the beta oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria, which can lead to decreases in both TG synthesis and the activity of enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis.

Oils rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) have gained attention due to expected cardio-protective health benefits; ALA is the metabolic precursor of the long-chain PUFAs EPA and DHA, however, this conversion happens at low rates. This low conversion efficiency is a recognised limitation of ALA-based supplementation as a substitute for preformed EPA and DHA from marine sources.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Pathways

ALA and its downstream eicosanoid metabolites modulate the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Numerous studies have confirmed that consumption of omega-3 fatty acids improves both macro and micro-vascular complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus by modifying the gut microbiota and controlling insulin resistance, oxidative stress, inflammation, lipid metabolism, and hepatic fat deposition. The flavonoid constituents of the defatted meal also contribute: behind the anti-inflammatory effects, vitexin-enriched plants exhibited remarkable pain-relieving activities; investigations of the anti-nociceptive properties of vitexin shed light on the multitarget nature of this flavonoid, which can modulate different receptors (opioid, GABAA, TRPV1) and processes (oxidative stress, cytokine production) involved in pain.

4.3 Antioxidant Activity

Tocopherols and phenolic compounds in camelina oil and meal exert antioxidant effects through multiple mechanisms, including free radical scavenging and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Although its oil has a high degree of unsaturation, it is considerably more stable in comparison with other unsaturated oils such as flax and fish oils, because of a high content of both phenolic substances and tocopherols, which serve as antioxidants. This oxidative stability is practically significant for shelf life and resistance to rancidity.

5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area

5.1 Cardiovascular Health and Lipid Profile

Overview of Clinical Evidence

The most extensively studied area for false flax oil supplementation in humans is its effect on blood lipid concentrations. A systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was conducted to determine the effectiveness of camelina oil supplementation (COS) on lipid profiles and glycemic indices. Seven eligible RCTs, including 428 individuals, were selected. The pooled analysis revealed that COS significantly improved total cholesterol in studies lasting more than 8 weeks and utilizing dosages lower than 30 g/d compared to the placebo group. The results of fractional polynomial modelling indicated that there were nonlinear dose–response relations between the dose of COS and absolute mean differences in LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and total cholesterol, but not triglycerides; it appears that the greatest effect of COS oil occurs at the dosage of 20 g/day. The meta-analysis concludes that COS may reduce cardiovascular disease risk by improving lipid profile markers, and that COS at dosages lower than 30 g/d may be a beneficial nonpharmacological strategy for lipid control.

Individual RCTs — Hypercholesterolaemic Adults

An early parallel double-blind RCT examined camelina oil versus rapeseed oil and olive oil. The effects of camelina oil on serum lipids and on the fatty acid composition of total lipids were studied in comparison to rapeseed and olive oils; 68 hypercholesterolaemic subjects aged 28 to 65 years were randomly assigned after a 2-week pretrial period to 1 of 3 oil groups, and subjects consumed daily 30 g (actual intake approximately 33 mL) of test oils for 6 weeks. The proportions of two metabolites of alpha-linolenic acid (eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids) increased and differed significantly in the camelina group from those in other groups. During the intervention, the serum LDL cholesterol concentration decreased significantly by 12.2% in the camelina oil group, 5.4% in the rapeseed oil group, and 7.7% in the olive oil group.

Individual RCTs — Subjects with Impaired Glucose Metabolism

A 12-week RCT with four parallel groups compared fatty fish, lean fish, camelina oil, and a control diet in adults with impaired glucose metabolism. Altogether 79 volunteers with impaired fasting glucose, BMI 25–36 kg m^-2, age 43–72 years, participated in a 12-week randomized controlled trial with four parallel groups: the fatty fish (four fish meals/week), lean fish (four fish meals/week), camelina sativa oil (10 g/day ALA), and control (limited intakes of fish and sources of ALA) groups. The proportions of EPA and DHA increased in plasma lipids in the fatty fish group, and the proportion of ALA increased in the camelina oil group; in the camelina oil group, total and LDL cholesterol concentrations decreased compared with the fatty fish and lean fish groups, and LDL-C/HDL-C and ApoB/ApoA-I ratios decreased compared with the lean fish group.

Individual RCTs — Postmenopausal Women with Dyslipidaemia

Sixty postmenopausal women with dyslipidaemia were randomly assigned to two oil groups: camelina oil and canola oil; subjects consumed daily 30 g of the test oils for 6 weeks; before and after dietary intervention, the assessment of nutrition, anthropometric parameters, lipid profile, and blood pressure were evaluated. The serum LDL cholesterol decreased from 147 mg/dl (3.8 mmol/l) to 132 mg/dl (3.4 mmol/l) in the camelina oil group, and from 146 mg/dl (3.8 mmol/l) to 135 mg/dl (3.5 mmol/l) in the canola oil group. In conclusion, cold-pressed camelina oil and cold-pressed canola oil had a beneficial effect on the lipid profile parameters, and camelina oil had better hypolipidaemic activity than canola oil. The authors noted that further large, randomised, controlled clinical trials would provide more definitive results of whether cold-pressed camelina oil has a beneficial effect on the lipid profile and anthropometric parameters in postmenopausal women with dyslipidaemia.

Evidence Strength — Lipid Profile

The overall body of evidence for lipid-lowering effects of camelina oil is considered preliminary to moderate. The meta-analysis pooled only seven RCTs with a total of 428 participants, and significant heterogeneity was observed across trials. The effect on triglycerides and HDL cholesterol was inconsistent across individual studies. Further RCTs with longer COS durations are warranted to expand on these results.

5.2 Vascular Function in Hypertension and Metabolic Syndrome

A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study assessed camelina oil's effects on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters in a particularly challenging population. This study aimed to assess the cardiovascular and metabolic effects of camelina oil in hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome; in a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized study, treated essential hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome received, during 6 months, either cyclodextrin-complexed camelina oil containing approximately 1.5 g ALA/day (n = 40) or an isocaloric placebo (n = 41), consisting of the same quantity of cyclodextrins and wheat starch. Camelina oil increased ALA and its elongation product EPA in erythrocyte membranes compared with placebo; however, no between-group difference was observed for cardiovascular parameters. Compared with placebo, camelina oil increased fasting glycaemia and HOMA-IR index, without affecting plasma lipids, or inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. The meta-analysis noted that this study in hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome did not demonstrate any beneficial effects on the lipid profile after 6 months of COS intake (10.4 g/day) when compared to a placebo intervention; however, 50% of participants in that study consumed lipid-lowering agents, which may have affected their results.

5.3 Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) — Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

A randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluated camelina oil in NAFLD patients in the context of a calorie-restricted diet. This study evaluated the effects of camelina sativa oil (CSO) supplementation as one of the richest dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids on glucose homeostasis, inflammation, metabolic endotoxemia, and oxidative stress in NAFLD patients; 43 subjects with NAFLD were allocated to either an intervention (20 g/day CSO) or placebo (20 g/day sunflower oil) group receiving a calorie-restricted diet for 12 weeks. CSO intake led to a significant decrease in insulin concentration (−17.49%), HOMA-IR (−20%), high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) (−12.94%), lipopolysaccharide endotoxin (−32.55%), malondialdehyde (MDA) (−18.75%), and 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (−19.55%), and a significant increase in the levels of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (31.82%) and superoxide dismutase activity (10.22%) in the CSO group compared with the placebo group. There was no significant difference between the two groups in fasting plasma glucose, QUICKI, catalase, glutathione peroxidase activity, and uric acid level.

A follow-up trial investigated co-supplementation of camelina oil with a prebiotic (resistant dextrin) in NAFLD. In that study, 44 subjects with NAFLD were allocated to either an intervention (20 g/day CSO + resistant dextrin) or a placebo (20 g/day CSO + maltodextrin) group and received a calorie-restricted diet (−500 kcal/day) for 12 weeks. Co-supplementing CSO and resistant dextrin significantly decreased insulin concentration, HOMA-IR, hs-CRP, endotoxin, cortisol, and markers of psychological distress (GHQ and DASS scores), and MDA, while increasing TAC in the intervention group compared with the placebo group.

The evidence in NAFLD is preliminary — results come from small single-centre trials and are confounded by the caloric restriction component of the intervention. Findings cannot yet be generalised across NAFLD populations or attributed exclusively to camelina oil.

5.4 Glycaemic Control and Insulin Resistance

A systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of published RCTs was conducted to determine the effectiveness of camelina oil supplementation (COS) on lipid profiles and glycaemic indices. Pooled data from four clinical trials demonstrated that COS did not change fasting blood glucose (−1.86 mg/dl; 95% CI: −6.77, 3.06; I² = 89.0%; P = 0.459) or fasting insulin (−0.10 pmol/L; 95% CI: −0.72, 0.52; I² = 81.1%; P = 0.752) compared to the placebo group. Thus, based on the pooled analysis, camelina oil supplementation does not appear to produce statistically significant improvements in fasting blood glucose or insulin across trial populations. High heterogeneity (I² ≥ 81%) limits the reliability of these pooled estimates.

5.5 Gut Health and Visceral Pain

Preclinical research (rodent models) has explored camelina defatted seed meal (DSM) for gut-related outcomes. Camelina sativa DSM prevented the development and persistence of post-inflammatory pain by a combination of mechanisms, including the promotion of tissue healing, the reduction of mast cell infiltration, and the protection of enteric neurons from the inflammatory insult. Gut inflammation represents a major risk factor for developing visceral hypersensitivity, which characteristically persists even after the resolution of intestinal damage. This research is animal/preclinical only; no human clinical data currently exist on camelina meal's effects on gut function or visceral pain.

5.6 Skin Health

Camelina oil has been incorporated into cosmetic and skin care formulations on the basis of its high polyunsaturated fatty acid content. In recent times, it has been explored for use in cosmetic and skin care products. No published human clinical trials specifically investigating camelina oil for dermatological indications in humans were identified in the peer-reviewed literature at the time of writing. Mechanistic rationale derives from the known roles of ALA, linoleic acid, and tocopherols in skin barrier function, but direct clinical evidence is absent.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Cardiovascular system: Lipid-lowering effects (particularly LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol) supported by multiple RCTs and one meta-analysis; effects on triglycerides and vascular function are inconsistent.
• Liver/hepatic system: Preliminary clinical evidence in NAFLD showing improvements in insulin resistance, inflammatory markers, and oxidative stress parameters when combined with caloric restriction.
• Metabolic/endocrine system: Pooled RCT data does not demonstrate significant effects on fasting glucose or fasting insulin; one trial in hypertensive metabolic syndrome patients observed an increase in fasting glycaemia.
• Immune and inflammatory system: ALA and downstream eicosanoids modulate eicosanoid biosynthesis toward less pro-inflammatory mediators; flavonoids in the defatted meal show anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in animal models.
• Gastrointestinal system: Preclinical evidence only for gut-protective effects of the defatted meal via flavonoid and isothiocyanate mechanisms.
• Integumentary system (skin): Topical and cosmetic applications proposed based on fatty acid and antioxidant composition; no human clinical trial evidence.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages appear in the peer-reviewed human clinical literature:

• In one RCT involving 68 hypercholesterolaemic adults (aged 28–65), subjects consumed daily 30 g (actual intake approximately 33 mL) of camelina oil for 6 weeks.
• In a trial of 60 postmenopausal women with dyslipidaemia randomly assigned to two oil groups, the subjects consumed daily 30 g of the test oils for 6 weeks.
• In a 12-week RCT with 79 volunteers with impaired fasting glucose, the camelina oil group received a dose providing 10 g per day of ALA.
• In an NAFLD trial, 43 subjects received 20 g/day of CSO or placebo (20 g/day sunflower oil) alongside a calorie-restricted diet for 12 weeks.
• In a 6-month double-blind study in hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome, participants received cyclodextrin-complexed camelina oil providing approximately 1.5 g ALA per day (n = 40) or an isocaloric placebo (n = 41).
• Based on dose–response modelling in the 2022 meta-analysis, it appears that the greatest effect of COS occurs at the dosage of 20 g per day.
• COS at dosages lower than 30 g/day was identified as potentially beneficial for lipid control in the meta-analysis conclusion.

In sub-chronic safety studies in animals, the acute study administered camelina sativa oil orally at a single dose of 5000 mg/kg of body weight. In the sub-chronic study, groups received 250, 500, and 1,000 mg/kg BW of camelina oil for 90 days.

8. Safety Considerations and Known Interactions

8.1 Erucic Acid

The most important chemical safety consideration for camelina oil is its erucic acid content. The potential health benefits of camelina sativa are overshadowed by concerns over high dietary exposure to two anti-nutrient compounds: erucic acid and glucosinolates. The FDA has determined that the maximum allowed limit of erucic acid in edible oils should be less than 2%. Exposure to high levels of erucic acid is associated with myocardial lipidosis and heart lesions which can adversely affect the liver or heart tissues. Camelina oil typically contains 1–3% erucic acid, placing it near or at the regulatory limit depending on variety and processing. The resulting camelina oil ingredient contains a mixture of triglycerides with primarily oleic, linoleic, and linolenic fatty acids and erucic acid levels under 2%.

8.2 Glucosinolates — Thyroid Effects

Glucosinolates may have some adverse effects on thyroid function, including enlargement of the thyroid gland. The adverse effects of glucosinolates include growth retardation, reduced performance, and impairment of kidney and liver functions of the livestock at higher intakes. In the refined oil, glucosinolates are largely removed during processing; concerns are therefore greater for whole seeds, sprouts, meal, or preparations that retain the defatted cake. These results represent a considerable improvement when camelina seed products meet or even exceed the international standards for glucosinolate contents (European Food Safety Authority, 2008).

8.3 Other Antinutrients in Meal

Camelina meal is characterised by the presence of minor substances that affect the value of this by-product. Plant secondary metabolites such as glucosinolates, sinapine, inositol phosphates, and condensed tannins belong to widespread anti-nutritive compounds which are generally present in oilseeds. Camelina seeds are low in other antinutritional compounds such as phytic acid, condensed tannins, sinapine, and erucic acid relative to related Brassicaceae, though these compounds are not entirely absent.

8.4 Allergy Potential

CamStar (in its GRAS submission to the FDA) discussed that it is highly unlikely that humans would elicit an allergic response to camelina oil as there was no measurable protein in the oil. This applies specifically to the refined oil; individuals with Brassicaceae allergies should note that whole-seed or meal products retain seed proteins.

8.5 Pre-Clinical Toxicology

A non-clinical study assessed the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of camelina oil in Wistar rats, with 5 rats per sex per group randomly assigned to three groups for acute (14-day) toxicity studies and five groups for sub-chronic (90-day) toxicity studies. CamStar reviewed a published 13-week porcine sub-chronic study, in which pigs received up to 15% camelina oil in their diet, corresponding to 8.9 g/kg BW/day and 10.2 g/kg BW/day for females and males respectively, with no observed adverse effects at the highest dose tested. CamStar also reviewed a published six-week study in which hypercholesterolaemic adults consumed 30 g/day of camelina oil with no adverse effects.

8.6 Mixed Glycaemic Signals

One clinical trial in a specific population raised a signal of potential concern: compared with placebo, camelina oil increased fasting glycaemia and HOMA-IR index in treated hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome, without affecting plasma lipids or inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. This finding contrasts with observations in NAFLD patients and with the pooled (null) glycaemic findings from the meta-analysis, and its mechanistic basis or clinical significance has not been resolved. Authors noted that the use of a low dose in a cyclodextrin-complexed formulation and the high prevalence of lipid-lowering drug use in that trial were potential confounders.

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