Eucheuma

Eucheuma: A Comprehensive Reference Article

1. Identity: Taxonomy, Nomenclature, and Natural Sources

Eucheuma is a genus of red algae classified within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Rhodophyta, class Florideophyceae, order Gigartinales, and family Solieriaceae. Commonly known as sea moss or gusô (pronounced /ɡuˈsɔːʔ/), Eucheuma is a rhodophyte seaweed that may vary in color — including purple, brown, and green.

The genus was first formally distinguished and named by the Swedish phycologist Jacob Georg Agardh in 1847, based on specimens primarily from the Indian Ocean region. The lectotype Eucheuma spinosum (originally published as E. spinosa) is now regarded as a synonym of Eucheuma denticulatum. The name Eucheuma derives from the Greek word "eu," meaning "good," and "cheuma," meaning "a substance."

Some eighteen to twenty species fall within the genus Eucheuma, represented by the groups Cottoniformia, Gelatiformia, and Anaxiferae. In 1985, Maxwell S. Doty and James N. Norris proposed a sectional classification for Eucheuma based on vegetative and reproductive anatomy, dividing the genus into four sections: Eucheuma (with short-celled axes), Anaxiferae (lacking axial filaments), Gelatiformia (gelatinous texture with prominent medullary filaments), and Cottoniformia (cottony texture from elongated cells).

Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are frequently misidentified, and molecular markers such as the cox2-3 spacer, cox1, and RuBisCO spacer have helped in understanding phylogenetic relationships and identifying new species. Two commercially dominant trade forms warrant special attention:

• Eucheuma cottonii (trade name): κ-Carrageenan is predominantly obtained by extraction of the tropical seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii, known in trade as Eucheuma cottonii (or simply "cottonii"). The red alga Eucheuma cottonii (also known as Kappaphycus alvarezii) can be found in abundance on the inner sides of coral reefs around the Philippines, Indonesia, and the island coasts of East Africa.
• Eucheuma spinosum (trade name): Eucheuma denticulatum (trade name Eucheuma spinosum or simply "spinosum") is the main species for the production of ι-carrageenan.

The main species used in the commercial production of carrageenan are Eucheuma cottonii and E. spinosum, now reclassified as Kappaphycus alvarezii ('Cottonii') and Eucheuma denticulatum ('Spinosum'). These are spiny, bushy plants, about 50 cm high, which grow on reefs and in shallow lagoons around the Philippines, Indonesia, and other island coasts of the Far East.

Common Forms and Preparations

As some of the most common and fastest-growing species of seaweed, Eucheuma can reach ten times its mass in approximately 45 to 60 days in warm tropical settings. Once harvested, the product can be dried, packaged, and transported for carrageenan extraction or used as a food. Seaweeds exported to other countries are available in dried, fresh, or salted form, or as seaweed meal powder. Cultured Eucheuma is sold on the international market in semi-refined and refined forms.

Carrageenan is a high-molecular-weight, strongly anionic polymer used for the textural stabilization of foods. Processed Eucheuma Seaweed (PES) is a form of carrageenan with a higher cellulose content. As a food additive, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved carrageenan as a food additive under the designations E407 (refined carrageenan) and E407a (processed Eucheuma seaweed).

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Philippines

The earliest documented record of the use of gusô as food dates to approximately 1637, in the Diccionario De La Lengua Bisaya, Hiligueina y Haraia de la isla de Panay y Sugbu y para las demas islas by the Augustinian missionary Alonso de Méntrida. In the book, Méntrida describes gusô as being a type of seaweed gathered from the beach by the Visayan peoples of the Philippines. Gusô is listed in the Ark of Taste international catalogue of endangered heritage foods of the Philippines by the Slow Food movement.

Gusô is a Bisaya term for a particular type of local seaweed and is one of about 500 edible species found in the Philippines. It is one of the major products of the waters in the area of Barobo, in the region of Surigao del Sur. Eucheuma spinosum, or green gusô, is usually harvested for local consumption. It has a crunchy texture, becoming softer when boiled for a few minutes, and has a naturally salty flavor. These seaweeds are often prepared lightly boiled and mixed with spices, served as a side dish to other seafood.

Indonesia and Malaysia

Eucheuma species are used as a food source for people in the Philippines, the Caribbean, and parts of Indonesia and Malaysia. East Malaysia, particularly the east coast of Sabah, is among the main cultivators of this species in the South East Asian region. This species has been cultivated for approximately 40 years in tropical regions for its hydrocolloids, namely carrageenan.

Caribbean

Eucheuma cottonii, which also grows in the Caribbean and is cultivated in the Philippines, is the particular species known as gusô. The Caribbean produces small volumes, primarily based on individual farmers supplying the 'seamoss' market overseas and locally for juices and emerging cosmetic applications.

Commercial Farming History

Since the mid-1970s, Kappaphycus and Eucheuma have been a major source for the expansion of the carrageenan industry. Commercial seaweed farming of gusô was pioneered in the Philippines. Between 1969–1970, there was a massive search for ideal farming sites for Kappaphycus as a result of the rejection of Indonesian carrageenan by American markets due to political problems. The search was initiated by the US-based FMC Marine Colloids Division in cooperation with the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources and the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Carrageenans (Primary Bioactive Polysaccharides)

Carrageenan, a sulfated polysaccharide extracted from the cell wall of red algae, is composed of linear chains of repeating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-galactose (3,6-AG) units linked by α-1,4 and β-1,3-glycosidic bonds. It is a substance with hydrocolloid properties owing to the presence of sulfated polyglycans with average relative molecular masses well above 100 kDa.

Three main types of carrageenan are used commercially, known in the food industry as iota (ι), kappa (κ), and lambda (λ) carrageenans. These names do not reflect definitive chemical structures but only general differences in composition and degree of sulfation at specific locations in the polymer.

• Iota-carrageenan (ι-carrageenan): ι-Carrageenan has been characterized by chemical methods and confirmed to have a masked repeating structure in which D-galactose 4-sulphate and 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose 2-sulphate residues are arranged alternately in linear chains. This polysaccharide was isolated from the red seaweed Eucheuma spinosum. Iota-carrageenan forms a soft gel.
• Kappa-carrageenan (κ-carrageenan): A polysaccharide from E. cottonii has similarly alternating 1,4- and 1,3-linked residues but is distinctive in that it has no detectable 2-sulphate. Kappa-carrageenan forms a stiff and brittle gel.
• Degree of sulfation: There are three types of industrially important carrageenans: kappa (κ), iota (ι), and lambda (λ). κ-carrageenan has one sulfate group per two galactose molecules, whereas ι and λ have two and three sulfate groups, respectively.

The seaweeds are usually extracted with alkali at high temperatures to transform the biological precursors μ- and ν-carrageenans into commercial κ- and ι-carrageenans.

Nutritional Composition

Proximate composition, vitamin C, α-tocopherol, dietary fibers, minerals, fatty acids, and amino acid profiles of Eucheuma cottonii have been studied. The seaweeds were found to be high in ash (37.15–46.19% of dry weight) and dietary fibers (25.05–39.67% of dry weight) and low in lipid content (0.29–1.11% of dry weight). They contained 12.01–15.53% macro-minerals (Na, K, Ca, and Mg) and 7.53–71.53 mg per 100 g dry weight of trace minerals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Se, and I). The crude protein content of E. cottonii was 9.76% of dry weight, with protein chemical scores between 20 and 67%.

The polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of E. cottonii was 51.55%. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) accounted for 24.98% of all fatty acids in E. cottonii.

Studies have highlighted the richness of red algae in vitamins (A, B, C), proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, minerals, and essential amino acids. The species studied showed significant levels of vitamins B1, B2, and C. The Eucheuma species reveals a complete profile of essential amino acids and minerals as well as carbohydrates, with low levels of lipids.

Seaweeds have high nutritional value as a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and especially minerals. They are known for their high mineral content, which is gathered from seawater depending on seasonal variation and the environment. Seaweeds are rich in macro-elements and trace elements, with a mineral content at least 10 times higher than terrestrial plants, reaching 20–50% of dry weight.

Other Bioactive Compounds

The bioactive compounds present in seaweeds give them properties associated with the prevention and treatment of diseases, including antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitumor, antiviral, fat-lowering, and neuroprotective activities. Primary metabolites are proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids involved in physiological functions. Among them, polysaccharides and fibers are the main compounds that display positive effects on chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and obesity.

Several species of seaweed contain powerful antioxidant compounds such as phlorotannins, carotenoids, and sterols. Isolated peptides from seaweeds are characterized by having antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anticoagulatory, and immunostimulatory activities.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Gelling and Hydrocolloid Properties

Carrageenan has no nutritional value in itself and is used in food preparation for its gelling, thickening, and emulsifying properties. Eucheuma denticulatum and related species are primary sources of iota-carrageenan, a sulfated galactan that forms soft, elastic, and thermoreversible gels in the presence of calcium ions. Historically, certain Eucheuma varieties like E. cottonii (now classified under Kappaphycus alvarezii) contributed to kappa-carrageenan production, which yields firm, brittle gels with potassium ions.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Among carrageenan's biological activities, antioxidant activity is considered most remarkable because antioxidants eliminate free radicals and contribute to improving resistance and minimizing disease in the human body. Under optimized extraction conditions, the total antioxidant activity and reducing power activity of carrageenan from Eucheuma gelatinae were predicted at 71.95 mg ascorbic acid equivalent/g DW and 89.84 mg FeSO₄ equivalent/g DW, respectively.

Antiviral Mechanisms

Carrageenans have been widely studied in food and medical applications. Several studies showed biological properties of carrageenans such as antiviral, anticoagulant, antitumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity. Experimental studies have shown that carrageenans demonstrate a wide range of antiviral effects and are effective against various viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, dengue virus, herpes simplex virus, and cytomegalovirus.

Anti-ulcer and Gastrointestinal Mechanisms

Sulfated polysaccharides from seaweed have shown important potential pharmacological uses, including anti-ulcer effects, by preventing adhesion of the bacteria Helicobacter pylori. Carrageenan is not degraded to any extent in the gastrointestinal tract and is not absorbed from it in species examined, such as rodents, dogs, and non-human primates.

Immunomodulatory and Antitumor Mechanisms

Oligosaccharides derived from carrageenan have been confirmed to possess immunomodulatory, antitumor, and antiviral properties, attributed to their smaller molecular weight, better water solubility, and more fully exposed active groups. Antitumoral potential of carrageenans has been widely evaluated. Carrageenans extracted from the genera Gigartina, Chondrus, Eucheuma, and Iridaea spp. showed that κ-carrageenan significantly inhibited the in vitro growth of fibroblasts, HeLa cells, and mammary cells.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

It is essential to note that the large majority of research on Eucheuma and its bioactive compounds involves in vitro cell studies and animal models. Robust controlled human clinical trials are very limited. The following sections characterize the evidence level precisely as it stands in the published literature.

5.1 Antiviral Activity

Carrageenan boasts a unique array of properties, encompassing antiviral, antibacterial, immunomodulatory, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, and antitumor attributes, positioning it as an attractive choice for cutting-edge research in drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue regeneration.

Experimental studies have demonstrated that carrageenans are effective against various viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, dengue virus, herpes simplex virus, and cytomegalovirus. The antiviral mechanism is generally attributed to the strong anionic charge density of the sulfated polysaccharide, which competes with heparan sulfate proteoglycans on cell surfaces used by many enveloped viruses for entry. Evidence level: Predominantly preclinical (in vitro and animal). Human clinical data specific to Eucheuma-derived carrageenan for antiviral indications are extremely limited.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity

Antioxidant activity of carrageenan from Eucheuma gelatinae has been evaluated using total antioxidant activity and reducing power assays. Results showed that carrageenan possessed antioxidant activity with corresponding intrinsic viscosity and gel strength.

The bioactivity of carrageenan was clearly demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo, leading to potential promise in developing therapeutic agents. Evidence level: Predominantly in vitro and preclinical. No controlled human trials specifically evaluating Eucheuma for antioxidant endpoints have been identified in the published literature.

5.3 Antitumor and Anticancer Activity

Carrageenans extracted from the genera Gigartina, Chondrus, Eucheuma, and Iridaea spp. showed that κ-carrageenan significantly prevented in vitro growth of fibroblasts, HeLa cells, and mammary cells. Additionally, polyphenol-rich extracts from Eucheuma cottonii have been studied for breast tumor suppression through hormone modulation and apoptosis induction in cell-line models.

Oligosaccharides derived from λ-carrageenan, prepared from native λ-carrageenan extracted from Kappaphycopsis cottonii (formerly Eucheuma cottonii), have been confirmed in experimental studies to possess immunomodulatory and antitumor properties. Evidence level: In vitro cell-line studies and limited animal experiments. No human clinical trials for cancer indications have been established.

5.4 Antidiabetic and Metabolic Effects

Among seaweed polysaccharides, carrageenan and dietary fibers are among the main compounds that display positive effects on chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and obesity. Seaweeds have gained importance as functional foods in Western countries because of their high dietary fiber, mineral, vitamin, and phytochemical content, low energy levels, and high concentrations of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Several published reviews cite an evaluation of antioxidant and antidiabetic activities from red seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii) extract (Prasasty et al., 2019). These studies are largely preclinical or involve isolated-compound assays. Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro/animal). No human intervention trials specifically on Eucheuma for glycemic or metabolic outcomes have been identified in the searched literature.

5.5 Cardiovascular and Lipid Effects

Carrageenan possesses numerous bioactivities including anticoagulant, antiviral, antithrombotic, antibacterial, cholesterol-lowering, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and antihyperlipidemic properties. The dietary fiber content of Eucheuma may contribute to lipid-lowering effects through mechanisms common to soluble fibers, such as bile acid sequestration. Evidence level: The cholesterol-lowering and anticoagulant properties of carrageenans are primarily documented from in vitro and animal studies. Direct human clinical evidence is lacking.

5.6 Nutritional and Functional Food Evidence

A peer-reviewed study published in the Journal of Applied Phycology (Matanjun et al., 2009) examined the proximate composition, vitamin C, α-tocopherol, dietary fibers, minerals, fatty acids, and amino acid profiles of Eucheuma cottonii. The seaweeds were high in ash and dietary fiber and low in lipid content; they contained macro-minerals including sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as well as trace elements including iron, zinc, copper, selenium, and iodine. This constitutes compositional evidence rather than clinical efficacy data.

5.7 Gastrointestinal Mucoadhesive and Anti-ulcer Effects

Sulfated polysaccharides from seaweed have shown important potential pharmacological uses, such as anti-ulcer effects, by preventing adhesion of the infection caused by the bacteria Helicobacter pylori. Carrageenan is also cited in the literature as having application in the treatment of stomach ulcers. Evidence level: Predominantly in vitro and animal-based. Human trials are not established in the identified sources.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Eucheuma

• Immune System: Immunomodulatory and antiviral activities documented in in vitro and animal studies.
• Gastrointestinal System: Dietary fiber contributions, anti-ulcer effects in preclinical models, and established non-absorption of food-grade carrageenan in the gut.
• Cardiovascular System: Potential anticoagulant, antithrombotic, and cholesterol-lowering activities, primarily at the preclinical level.
• Endocrine/Thyroid: Source of dietary iodine, a nutrient essential for thyroid hormone synthesis, but with noted risk of excess intake from high-dose seaweed consumption.
• Musculoskeletal: Calcium and magnesium mineral content relevant to bone health at a nutritional level.
• Oncology: In vitro anti-proliferative effects on cancer cell lines documented; no human clinical evidence established.
• Metabolic Health: High dietary fiber content with potential implications for blood glucose regulation and weight management, based on fiber physiology.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Processed Eucheuma Seaweed (PES) is a food additive form of carrageenan with a higher cellulose content than refined carrageenan. It appears commercially in several forms:

• Whole dried seaweed: Used as a food ingredient in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Caribbean traditions. No standardized supplement dose is established in the scientific literature.
• Refined carrageenan (food additive grade): A molecular weight greater than 100 kDa is required for safe dietary use.
• Carrageenan in infant formula: JECFA concluded that "the use of carrageenan in infant formula or formula for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1,000 mg/L is not of concern."
• Animal/toxicological study doses: In a subchronic toxicity study in rats, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for carrageenan was 3,400–3,900 mg/kg body weight per day, the highest dose tested. No adverse effects were detected in chronic toxicity studies in rats up to 7,500 mg/kg body weight per day. These values are far above any anticipated human dietary exposure and are provided here solely for context.

No standardized or clinically validated therapeutic dose of whole Eucheuma seaweed or its isolated fractions for human supplement use has been established in the identified peer-reviewed literature.

8. Safety Considerations

Regulatory Status of Processed Eucheuma Seaweed

Processed Eucheuma Seaweed was considered by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) on multiple occasions. The Committee concluded that, because of the chemical relationship between processed Eucheuma seaweed and traditionally refined carrageenan, the toxicological data on carrageenan were relevant to the safety assessment, and ultimately established that the ADI "not specified" for carrageenan extended to include processed Eucheuma seaweed as a group ADI.

The FDA designated carrageenan as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use as a food additive. The EFSA conducted a comprehensive re-evaluation in 2018, concluding that carrageenan (E407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E407a) are safe at current levels of use in the EU.

Distinction Between Food-Grade Carrageenan and Poligeenan (Degraded Carrageenan)

The substance poligeenan (formerly referred to as degraded carrageenan) is not a food additive. It exhibits toxicological properties at high doses that do not occur with the food additive carrageenan. Distinction between food-grade and degraded carrageenan remains critical, as older literature sometimes conflates the two forms, potentially creating confusion about safety. Poligeenan (average molecular weight 10–20 kDa) has not been authorized as a food additive and is not used in any food applications.

Carcinogenicity and Genotoxicity

In long-term bioassays, carrageenan has not been found to be carcinogenic, and there is no credible evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect or a tumor-promoting effect on the colon in rodents. Like many dietary fibers, there is significant cecal enlargement in rodents at high doses, but this does not appear to be associated with toxicological consequences. Many toxicological studies on carrageenan have involved administration at doses in excess of today's standards for dietary feeding levels in bioassays, and at levels that are orders of magnitude in excess of those to which humans are exposed.

Use in Infants

JECFA was of the view that "it is inadvisable to use carrageenan or processed Eucheuma seaweed in infant formula intended for infants up to and including 12 months of age," because the database was not sufficient to draw conclusions on the effects of carrageenan on the immature gut, the absorption of carrageenan by the immature gut, and the effects of carrageenan on the immune response of the gastrointestinal tract.

Iodine Content and Thyroid Implications

The adequate intake of iodine established by the WHO as well as Nordic countries is 150 µg/day for adults, and the tolerable upper intake level (UL) endorsed by EFSA is 600 µg/day for adults. EFSA's exposure assessment found that seaweed intake may pose a risk of excessive iodine intake among consumers, since many species of seaweed have very high iodine contents. High iodine intake exceeding the upper tolerable intake levels may lead to iodine toxicity and can have negative health effects such as impaired thyroid function, goiter, and hyperthyroidism.

Testing of popular seaweed snacks revealed that some contained so much iodine that regular consumption could be dangerous. Four of six popular seaweed snacks exceeded, in a single serving, the Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for iodine for children or adults, and/or contained unacceptable concentrations of lead, cadmium, or arsenic.

Heavy Metal Accumulation

The concentrations of heavy metals in edible seaweed are generally below toxic levels; however, levels of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu) may exceed toxic levels in some instances. Seaweeds can also entrap heavy metals including aluminum, cadmium, iron, and particularly arsenic. While inorganic arsenic compounds are known to be carcinogenic, the majority of arsenic in seaweeds is present as arsenosugars, which are much less toxic.

Seaweed may accumulate and serve as a dietary source of exposure to heavy metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg). The capacity of Eucheuma to accumulate environmental contaminants depends on the water quality of the cultivation site, making origin and quality testing relevant for safety.

Jelly Mini-Cups Suspension

Carrageenan (E407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E407a) are two of the food additives that composed jelly mini-cups, which were suspended in 2004 by the European Commission to be placed on the market, following the measures taken and information provided by different member states. This suspension related to choking hazards from the physical form of jelly mini-cup products, not to the toxicological properties of carrageenan or processed Eucheuma seaweed per se.

References

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