Eggplant

Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.): A Comprehensive Reference on Identity, Traditional Use, Bioactive Compounds, and Scientific Evidence

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical name: Solanum melongena L. Family: Solanaceae. Common synonyms and regional names: Solanum melongena L., commonly known as eggplant or aubergine, is an economically important vegetable crop belonging to the Solanaceae family, growing in tropical and temperate areas. It is also known as brinjal (South Asia and parts of Africa), aubergine (Europe), and by numerous vernacular names across its range of cultivation. In Ayurveda, it is known as Vartaka.

Solanum melongena is a cultivated to semi-wild herb with large, shallowly lobed leaves with rounded lobes and large white or purple flowers, grown for its large edible white, yellow, or purple fruits. The plant is an annual herb that occurs under 0.5 m high and has large, lobed leaves and purple or white flowers. Although technically the fruiting body is a berry, it is universally used as a vegetable in culinary and medicinal contexts.

This species includes a large number of commercial cultivars or varieties and local landraces that produce fruits differing in shape (ovoid, oblong, cylindrical, club-shaped) and colour (purple, green, purple with white stripes) and size. Eggplant is the fifth most economically important solanaceous crop after potato, tomato, pepper, and tobacco. Apart from the well-known brinjal eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), two other under-utilized eggplant species, the scarlet eggplant (S. aethiopicum L.) and the gboma eggplant (S. macrocarpon L.), are also cultivated.

1.1 Common Forms and Preparations

As a food ingredient, eggplant is consumed fresh, roasted, grilled, baked, steamed, fried, and incorporated into curries, stews, dips (such as baba ganoush), and casseroles. As a natural health ingredient or dietary supplement, it has been prepared as:

• Aqueous infusion (tea): In one clinical study, S. melongena was given as a 2% (w/v) infusion prepared by washing, dehydrating, and powdering the whole fruit, with 12 g of this powder sealed in filter paper.
• Lyophilized powder and capsules: Dextrin was added to the fruit juice, which was then lyophilized. This lyophilized eggplant powder containing 1.92 mg/g of eggplant-derived acetylcholine (ACh) was obtained with a yield of 4.08% from the raw materials, and then encapsulated to afford 300 mg capsules.
• Juice and juice extracts
• Ethanolic extracts
• Topical preparations (creams, lotions, pastes)

2. Origin, Domestication, and Geographic Spread

The eggplant was likely domesticated in Indo-China from the wild progenitor S. insanum, giving rise to the great variety of cultivars found there. Early domesticates recorded from 300 BC in India and from 59 BC in China are likely to have been small, globular, and bitter; the elongated fruit type is not recorded until the 16th century.

Originally grown in India, Solanum melongena spread to East Asia as early as 544 C.E., where its berry became a staple of the Chinese diet and agricultural system. During the Arab Agricultural Revolution of the high Middle Ages, the eggplant was transported west to North Africa and the Near East, where it was bred to reduce bitterness; from here, the eggplant subsequently traveled north across the Mediterranean to Italy and Spain. Around the eighth century, eggplant spread eastward to Japan and then westward along the Silk Road into Western Asia, Europe, and Africa by Arab traders during the fourteenth century, and was then introduced into America soon after Europeans arrived there.

The scientific name of the eggplant, Solanum melongena, is thought to originate from the Arab name for the plant (albadhinjan). The eggplant reached England by at least the late sixteenth century, when botanist John Gerard documented it in his 1597 Herball, or, General Historie of Plantes.

The global production of eggplant has largely increased, reaching 52.3 million tons in 2017.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

3.1 Ayurvedic Medicine (India)

Eggplant originated in India, and a large-fruited cultivar was domesticated in India. In his book Origin of Cultivated Plants, published in 1886, the botanist De Candolle stated that the plant, known botanically as Solanum melongena, has been in use in India since ancient times and he believed it is native to the Asian region.

In the ancient Indian system of Ayurvedic medicine, practitioners used white eggplant to treat diabetes and the roots to relieve asthma. In Ayurvedic classification, eggplant is generally considered light (Laghu) and piercing (Teekshna). Fruit ash was used in a dry hot poultice to treat piles, a practice documented in Malaysia. Root juice was used for otitis and toothache.

3.2 Traditional Mexican Medicine

In traditional Mexican medicine, Solanum melongena is used to treat obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, asthma, bronchitis, arthritis, and hypercholesterolemia.

3.3 Traditional Use in Brazil

Eggplant is consumed extensively in Brazil. It has been believed that infusion of a powdered preparation of the fruit may reduce serum cholesterol.

3.4 Other Folk Traditions

Wild species of Solanum, particularly paniculatum and fastigiatum, have been extensively used in folk medicine. Eggplant has also historically been used topically for inflammatory skin conditions; historically these qualities made eggplant useful for conditions involving swelling and inflammation, such as boils, sores, and inflammatory skin conditions.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

4.1 Phenolic Acids

Among vegetables, eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is an important source of phenolic and flavonoid compounds, both of which are powerful antioxidants. The major phenolic compounds found in eggplant include N-caffeoylputrescine, 5-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid), and 3-acetyl-5-caffeoylquinic acid. In addition, trace quantities of flavonols, namely quercetin-3-glucoside, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, and myricetin-3-galactoside, are also reported in its pulp.

Recent studies have shown that S. melongena skin contains phenols, including caffeic acid, quinic acid, cinnamic acid, and chlorogenic acid, and flavonoids such as nasunin and quercetin.

4.2 Anthocyanins — Nasunin

Delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside (nasunin), an anthocyanin, was isolated as purple-colored crystals from eggplant peels, Solanum melongena L. 'Chouja'. It is the principal anthocyanin responsible for the deep purple pigmentation of the peel. Nasunin, an antioxidant anthocyanin abundant in the eggplant peel, was demonstrated to prevent oxidative stress and inhibit angiogenesis.

In vitro electron spin resonance studies established the mechanism of nasunin's antioxidant activity: nasunin directly scavenged superoxide anion (O₂⁻) with a potency of 143 ± 8 SOD-equivalent units/mg, and inhibited formation of DMPO-OH (0.65 ± 0.07 EPC-K1 μmol/mg). A spectrophotometric study showed that nasunin formed an iron complex with a molar ratio of nasunin:Fe³⁺ of 2:1. This iron-chelating capacity is significant because free iron catalyzes free-radical chain reactions associated with lipid peroxidation.

Nasunin (at concentrations below 50 μM) protected against lipid peroxidation of brain homogenates.

4.3 Glycoalkaloids (Solamargine and Solasonine)

Eggplant contains glycoalkaloids (GAs), a class of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites of great structural variety that may have both adverse and beneficial biological effects. Nineteen glycoalkaloids have been tentatively identified in eggplant berry extracts. Relative signal intensities showed solamargine and its isomers as the most abundant.

Eggplant berries are a source of health-promoting metabolites including antioxidant and nutraceutical compounds, mainly anthocyanins and chlorogenic acid; however, they also contain some anti-nutritional compounds such as steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA) and saponins, which are responsible for the bitter taste of the flesh and with potential toxic effects on humans.

The eggplant glycoalkaloids are toxic secondary metabolites that may have detrimental effects on human health, particularly if the magnitudes of GAs are higher than the recommended food safety level (200 mg per kg of fresh mass). The fruits of S. aethiopicum and S. melongena contained (in mg per 100 g of fresh mass) α-solamargine (0.58–4.56) and α-solasonine (0.17–1.0). These levels in commercially sold cultivated eggplant are typically well below the food-safety threshold.

4.4 Acetylcholine (ACh)

Eggplants are rich in acetylcholine (ACh), which can improve high blood pressure and negative psychological states. The ACh content significantly differed among eggplant varieties; the difference between the highest and lowest ACh content was 100-fold (Tosataka: 11 ± 0.61 mg/100 g fresh weight; Ryoma: 0.11 ± 0.046 mg/100 g fresh weight). Eggplant fruit presented the highest ACh content (4.8 mg/100 g FW), three times higher than that in other parts combined.

4.5 Additional Identified Compounds

Solanoflavone, a biflavonol glycoside, has been isolated from the aerial part of white eggplant, while isoscopoletin, grossamide, and cannabisin F have been found in the root of eggplants. The plant also contains flavonoids, tropane alkaloids, glycoalkaloids, arginine, lanosterol, gramisterol, and aspartic acid as important constituents.

5. Mechanisms of Action

5.1 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Dietary antioxidants found abundantly in fruits and vegetables neutralize reactive oxygen species, thus reducing lipid peroxidation and damage to cellular organelles. Among dietary antioxidants, phenolics are considered to be key health-promoting compounds with several biological effects including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, hepatoprotective, antithrombotic, antiviral, anticarcinogenic, and vasodilatory actions.

From 120 vegetables evaluated for antioxidant activity, eggplant ranked among the top ten for superoxide scavenging activity. The antioxidant mechanisms of eggplant's phenolics include direct radical scavenging of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals (primarily via nasunin) and chelation of pro-oxidant metal ions such as ferric iron.

5.2 α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase Inhibition (Antidiabetic Mechanisms)

A more physiologically relevant explanation for eggplant's antidiabetic potential lies in the phenolic-linked antioxidant activity and α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of eggplant, which could reduce hyperglycemia-induced pathogenesis. Results indicate that phenolic-enriched extracts of eggplant with moderate free-radical scavenging-linked antioxidant activity had high α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and in specific cases moderate to high angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity.

According to multiple studies, eggplant can control diabetes through anti-oxidative properties and inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity.

5.3 ACE Inhibition (Antihypertensive Mechanisms)

Eggplant has exerted an antihypertensive effect via ACE inhibitory activity. Additionally, the eggplant-derived acetylcholine content itself contributes: eggplant was found to be rich in choline esters, including acetylcholine (ACh), and had an antihypertensive effect.

5.4 Lipid Metabolism Mechanisms

Eggplant may have shown protective effects on hyperlipidemia and obesity via the induction of lipoprotein lipase activity and the reduction of pancreatic lipase activity.

5.5 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

The anti-inflammatory activity of eggplant extracts has been demonstrated primarily in cell-based (in vitro) models. Eating foods containing certain flavonoids, including anthocyanins, helps reduce inflammatory markers that increase the risk of heart disease. Nasunin has also been shown in macrophage cell lines to suppress pro-inflammatory signaling pathways.

5.6 Anticholinesterase Activity

Anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities of eggplant extracts were evaluated; pulp tissue was found to be more active in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzyme than peel, showing an inhibitory effect higher than 20% for Mir pulp. Many species belonging to the Solanaceae family have been reported to have AChE inhibitory properties; the chemical structure and heterocyclic nitrogen of steroidal alkaloids play an important role in AChE inhibition. Peel and pulp extracts exhibit mild acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity.

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

6.1 Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Health

Human clinical evidence (strongest for eggplant):

Eggplant was found to be rich in choline esters including acetylcholine (ACh) and had antihypertensive effects in spontaneously hypertensive rats. The effects of continuous intake of eggplant powder on blood pressure (BP), stress, and psychological state (PS) in 100 stressed participants with normal-high BP or grade 1 hypertension were evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group comparative study.

Participants in the eggplant group ingested capsules containing eggplant powder (1.2 g/day; 2.3 mg of ACh/day) for 12 weeks, whereas participants in the placebo group ingested placebo capsules. Eggplant powder intake significantly decreased hospital diastolic blood pressure (DBP) at week 8 overall and in the normal-high BP group, and both systolic blood pressure (SBP) and DBP at week 12 overall and in the grade 1 hypertension group, compared to the placebo group. It also improved negative psychological states at week 8 or 12 in the normal-high BP group. This was reported as the first evidence of BP- and psychological-state-improving effects of eggplant intake in humans. The functional substance responsible for the effects was estimated to be eggplant-derived choline ester, namely ACh.

Daily consumption of eggplant powder containing 2.3 mg acetylcholine (ACh) is known to alleviate hypertension and improve mental status. However, eggplant powder used in clinical trials also contains the antihypertensive compound γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Although previous studies indicated that the main antihypertensive compound in eggplant is ACh, given that GABA amounts in eggplant do not reach the effective dosage, the effects of GABA on the antihypertensive effect of eggplant remain unclear.

Evidence strength: One well-designed randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (n=100) supports a blood pressure-lowering effect of eggplant powder in individuals with normal-high BP or grade 1 hypertension. This is currently the most robust clinical evidence for any health effect of eggplant. Independent replication is needed.

6.2 Blood Lipid (Cholesterol) Modulation

It has been believed in Brazil that infusion of a powdered preparation of the fruit may reduce serum cholesterol. However, there are few documented reports on its effects on cholesterol metabolism and its possible hypocholesterolemic effect has not been proved by well-controlled studies. One study observed the effects of S. melongena on the serum cholesterol and triglycerides of 38 hypercholesterolemic human volunteers ingesting S. melongena infusion for five weeks. Results from that study described only a modest and transitory effect.

Another study included 21 individuals with total cholesterol levels >200 mg/dL; one group drank one glass of eggplant extract with orange juice before breakfast each morning, one group received 20 mg of lovastatin, and one was the control. The eggplant extract with orange juice did not lower lipid levels.

Clinical and animal studies have documented that eggplant has little effect on the lipid profile. There are few documented reports on its effects on cholesterol metabolism, and its possible hypocholesterolemic effect has not been proved by well-controlled studies.

Evidence strength: Weak to negative. The available human trials show minimal or no clinically meaningful benefit on cholesterol or triglyceride levels. The widespread popular belief (especially in Brazil) that eggplant infusions lower cholesterol is not currently supported by rigorous clinical evidence.

6.3 Glycemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes

The National Diabetes Education Program of NIH, Mayo Clinic, and American Diabetes Association recommend an eggplant-based diet as a choice for management of type 2 diabetes. The rationale for this suggestion is the high fiber and low soluble carbohydrate content of eggplant.

Phenolic extracts of eggplant possess high α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and moderate to high angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory activity, suggesting its possible role in management of type 2 diabetes and hypertension.

However, the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity data derive predominantly from in vitro assays. There have been several studies reporting that eggplant has antidiabetic properties because of its anti-oxidant effects and lowering the absorption of glucose in the digestive organs via inhibiting α-glucosidase and α-amylase activity. Robust randomized controlled trials in humans testing glycemic outcomes as a primary endpoint are lacking. Eggplant is low in calories, carbohydrate, and protein, and rich in dietary fiber and minerals; thus, it is recommended for reducing caloric intake and body weight to prevent type-2 diabetes.

Evidence strength: Predominantly in vitro (enzyme inhibition assays) with supportive animal data. Mechanistic plausibility is established, but human clinical trials specifically investigating glycemic control as a primary endpoint for eggplant preparations are currently absent from the published literature.

6.4 Metabolic Syndrome

Eggplant (S. melongena) can be useful in the treatment of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its complications due to possessing delphinidin (an anthocyanin) and chlorogenic acid (a phenolic acid). There have been several studies reporting that eggplant has antidiabetic properties because of its anti-oxidant effects.

Eggplant possesses various pharmacological effects, including anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and antihyperlipidemic properties, which have been supported by numerous investigations. These effects relate to its impacts on MetS and its complications comprising diabetes, high blood pressure, hyperlipidemia, and obesity.

Animal model evidence further supports a protective role: male Wistar rats maintained for 12 weeks on a 20% fructose diet to develop metabolic syndrome, after receiving ethanolic extract of S. melongena (100 and 200 mg/kg/day, orally) for 6 weeks, showed reversal of kidney damage. The rats fed with high fructose developed MS and showed kidney damage characterized by proliferative glomerulonephritis and necrosis; this damage was reduced by S. melongena.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate for individual metabolic parameters. The 2021 PMC review (Yarmohammadi et al., Iran J Basic Med Sci) synthesizes preclinical and some clinical data supporting effects on diabetes, hypertension, and obesity within the MetS construct; however, robust multi-endpoint RCTs in MetS populations are lacking.

6.5 Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Potential

Flavonoids isolated from eggplant exhibit potent antioxidant activity against chromosomal aberrations induced by doxorubicin. Nasunin's iron-chelating capacity is of particular neuroprotective interest since iron-catalyzed oxidative damage to brain lipids is implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Nasunin at concentrations below 50 μM protected against lipid peroxidation of brain homogenates. The findings suggest that nasunin is a potent superoxide scavenger and has protective activity against lipid peroxidation.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No human clinical trials have specifically investigated neuroprotective effects of eggplant or its extracts as a primary endpoint.

6.6 Anticholinesterase Activity and Cognitive Relevance

Anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities of eggplant extracts were evaluated; pulp tissue was found to be more active in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzyme than peel, showing an inhibitory effect higher than 20% for Mir pulp. This anticholinesterase activity is associated with the treatment of diseases such as Alzheimer's (AD) or Parkinson's disease. These findings are preliminary and limited to in vitro assays.

Evidence strength: In vitro only; no human data exist for cognitive or neurodegenerative endpoints.

7. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Cardiovascular system: Blood pressure lowering (clinical RCT evidence); potential endothelial protection via polyphenols (in vitro).
• Metabolic/endocrine system: α-Glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition (in vitro); antidiabetic use in traditional systems; fiber contributing to glycemic modulation.
• Lipid metabolism: Proposed but clinically unconfirmed cholesterol-lowering activity via pancreatic lipase inhibition and fiber-mediated bile acid sequestration.
• Nervous system: ACh content relevant to neurotransmission; in vitro AChE inhibition relevant to Alzheimer's research; BP and psychological state modulation (one RCT).
• Gastrointestinal system: Dietary fiber supports gut health and bowel regularity; used historically for hemorrhoids (piles).
• Integumentary system (skin): Topical extract preparations have been explored for inflammatory skin conditions.
• Renal system: Animal data suggest protective effects against fructose-induced kidney damage in metabolic syndrome.

8. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported strictly as they appear in identified studies — they do not represent clinical recommendations:

• Lyophilized powder (capsules), blood pressure RCT: Participants in the eggplant group ingested capsules containing eggplant powder (1.2 g/day; delivering 2.3 mg of ACh/day) for 12 weeks. This was produced from approximately 22 g of fresh eggplant per day.
• Aqueous infusion, cholesterol study: A 2% (w/v) infusion was prepared from the whole fruit, which was washed, dehydrated, and powdered; 12 g of powder was sealed in filter paper per serving. The study ran for five weeks.
• Ethanolic extract, animal metabolic syndrome study: Ethanolic extract of S. melongena was administered at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg/day orally for 6 weeks in rats. (Note: animal dose; no directly equivalent human dose is established.)
• Eggplant powder capsule specification: The lyophilized eggplant powder capsules contained 1.92 mg/g of eggplant-derived choline ester (ACh) and were produced at a yield of 4.08% from raw materials, encapsulated into 300 mg capsules.

As of the 2019 publication, only two clinical trials had investigated eggplant related to cholesterol-lowering effects in hypercholesterolemic participants and its efficacy in reducing fat mass in overweight women. This underscores the paucity of human dosing data for eggplant supplementation across most health areas.

9. Safety Considerations

9.1 Glycoalkaloid Toxicity

The eggplant glycoalkaloids are toxic secondary metabolites that may have detrimental effects on human health, particularly if the magnitudes of GAs are higher than the recommended food safety level (200 mg per kg of fresh mass). The maximum mass fraction of solasonine in eggplant was detected in flower buds (135.63 μg/g), followed by leaf (113.29 μg/g), physiologically ripe fruit (74.74 μg/g), young fruit (61.33 μg/g), and mature fruit (21.55 μg/g), indicating that mature, commercially sold fruit contains considerably lower levels than other plant parts. Concentrations in the edible mature fruit of cultivated S. melongena are generally below toxic thresholds under normal dietary intake.

9.2 Allergic Reactions

Eggplant is a recognized food allergen. Published literature identifies both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated reactions. Symptoms of eggplant allergy have included urticaria, itching of the throat, and hoarseness. Skin prick test was positive with 4 varieties of eggplant; however, allergen-specific immunoglobulin E was not detected in one reported case. A comprehensive 2021 review in Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine (PMID 34434275) and a 2009 investigation in World Allergy Organization Journal (PMID 23283148) have characterized the clinical and immunological aspects of eggplant allergy; the latter found that allergens predominate in the peel.

9.3 Oxalate Content

Eggplant (as a nightshade) is high in oxalates, which can be inflammatory in cases of weak digestion. Individuals with a history of calcium oxalate kidney stones or conditions requiring strict oxalate restriction should be aware of this constituent.

9.4 Anticholinesterase Activity and Bradycardia Risk

Eggplant's ACh content and mild AChE inhibitory activity have pharmacological implications. In the 2019 RCT on blood pressure, the exclusion criteria specifically included participants under treatment or medication for arrhythmia or bradycardia, reflecting acknowledged concerns about ACh-mediated cardiovascular effects at higher doses or in susceptible individuals.

9.5 Iron Absorption Interaction

Nasunin, by virtue of its well-characterized iron-chelating mechanism, has the theoretical potential to reduce dietary iron bioavailability when consumed with iron-rich foods. A spectrophotometric study showed that nasunin formed an iron complex with a molar ratio of nasunin:Fe³⁺ of 2:1, indicating strong binding. The clinical significance of this interaction at normal dietary intake levels has not been established in human trials.

9.6 Nightshade Sensitivity

Eggplant berries also contain saponins, which are responsible for the bitter taste of the flesh and with potential adverse effects on humans. Individuals with known sensitivity to other Solanaceae family members (tomato, potato, pepper) may also react to eggplant.

References

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• Solanaceae Source: Solanum melongena species page.